2. Background and existing work

common trait is seen in the role that light plays in the role of the evolution of the universe and humans. The role of light is less appreciated in the evolution of humans than in the universe. This is because of the significant effort and the duration that has been invested in studying the role of light photons in the universe. The role of photons in a scientific study of the universe can be seen in domains such as optical astronomy [4]. Photons also play an important role in humans as seen in the existence of bio-photons [5–7]. Therefore, light has played an important role in

The notion created by the concept of the Big Bang as being the first event in the universe is that the universe first emerged and that humans appeared and evolved at a later epoch. The implication of this notion is that the existence of the universe is thought to precede human appearance and continued evolution. This does not consider the perspective that human evolution can have an extra-terrestrial influence. However, the alternative perspective presented in the Panspermia theory considers that human evolution has an extra-terrestrial influence. The incorporation of an extra-terrestrial influence on human evolution implies that evolutionary actions influencing the emergence of the universe and humans could have evolved at the same epoch. Such a perspective is supported by

The Panspermia theory presented is of the opinion that life was seeded in outer space [8–11]. Though, there is an argument against the Panspermia theory [12], the theory should not be discarded. This is because of the possibility of the extinction of biological life in outer space making these challenging to observe in comparison to

The discussion here proposes that the aggregation of life-forms leaves a geometric trace in outer-space. This perspective differs from the theory

underlying the Panspermia theory that has motivated astrobiology research. The discussion in this chapter considers that the observation of life forms can be done from two lenses. These lenses are those of geometry traces associated with lifeforms and that of biology. The consideration of the geometry traces associated with life-forms provides an opportunity to design a paradigm suitable for

investigating the validity of the Panspermia theory from the geometrical perspective. The novel perspective being presented proposes that geometry traces associated with life-forms are present in the extra-terrestrial environment. These traces constitute the evidence of life originating from outer-space as advocated in the

The contribution of this chapter is twofold. The first contribution is that the chapter presents the Mars geometrical Panspermia theory as an alternative para-

The chapter's second contribution is the design of low cost network architecture for conducting Mars exploration missions aimed at verifying the Mars geometrical Panspermia theory. The low cost network is intended for use by space organizations in developing nations. These space organizations being considered are those with

The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the background and existing work. Section 3 presents a mathematical framework describing the Martian geometric Panspermia theory. Section 4 describes the proposed Mars based geometric Panspermia theory. Section 5 focuses on the proposed

digm for investigating the emergence of humans. The Mars geometrical Panspermia theory advocates that geometrical traces emerging from different aggregation patterns of life forms are present in the meteorites on Mars. The aggregation is considered feasible because Mars can support simple life forms such

limited capital and limited space engineering capacities.

low cost network architecture. Section 6 concludes the chapter.

human evolution too.

Planetology - Future Explorations

the Panspermia theory.

Panspermia theory.

as Bacteria.

108

the ability to directly observe life-forms on the earth.

Mars has been considered as a suitable location that can be studied to increase human knowledge on the existence of extra-terrestrial life [13]. This is because Mars shows patterns of planetary evolution and climate change. Mars exploration is also appealing because Mars is accessible to Spacecraft launched from earth. Several research groups have been established aiming to engage in Mars exploration missions. Two research groups in this regard are the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) and the outer planet assessment group (OPAG).

Johnson et al. [14] discuss MEPAG's Mars exploration initiative. It is recognised that a successful Mars exploration campaign requires the development of technology across multi-disciplinary domains. The required technical capabilities comprise: (1) Mars surface access at different altitude and elevations, (2) Mars environment characterisation, (3) life detection and (4) age dating. Environment characterisation requires the dynamic evaluation of chemical and isotopic compositions at various locations on Mars. The realization of these tasks in a Mars exploration mission requires the design and launch of instrumentation on Mars rovers.

Mars exploration missions aim to analyse Mars's environment and probe its composition. The composition of Mars can be found in two types of records [13]. These are the chemical record and physical record. Each record targets the detection of a different type of bio-signature. The physical record refers to the analysis of the weather and climate in the environment of the planet Mars. The chemical record refers to organic compounds that enable the support of biological mechanisms in terrestrial life. In addition, deployed Mars exploration vehicles search for an evidence of a life supporting climate.

The detection of elements belonging to the bio-signature in either physical or chemical record requires the use of appropriate instrumentation. Suitable instrumentation is also required to obtain information from a Mars exploration mission. The choice of instrumentation technology is determined by the science case.

The discussion in [14] focuses on the components of a Mars exploration campaign. It presents a hierarchy of the objectives enabling the realization of the science goal for a Mars exploration mission. Though the role of advanced instrumentation is recognised; algorithms, theories and perspectives that can motivate the design of advanced instrumentation have not been presented.

The choice of instrumentation is also influenced by the sample return expected from a Mars exploration mission. Mars missions can be classified as Mars return sample missions and non-Mars return sample missions. The Mars return sample mission aims to deploy Mars vehicles that take samples from Mars and brings them to earth for further analysis. The sample(s) is the deliverable in the Mars return sample missions. Non-Mars sample return missions are those in which the deployed Mars vehicle aims to execute analysis on Mars and obtain results. The results are relayed to the earth via an integrated telecommunications system for further analysis.

The discussion in [13, 14] describes the objectives of the MEPAG in 2009. It is important to consider how changes in science case influence the instrumentation and the goals of Mars exploration missions. This is because of changing interests in the outer space exploration and how technology advancement influence Mars exploration missions. A change that has occurred in Mars exploration is an increase in the number of space agencies seeking to participate in Mars exploration missions [15]. Another change arises due to technological advancements leading to the use of small satellites in Mars exploration missions. The emergence of small satellites has

led to their use in Mars exploration missions. In this case, small satellite is dependent on the science case definition.

Bio-signature preservation is important for the success of detecting extraterrestrial life in Mars exploration missions. The detection of bio-signatures can be used to determine the absence or presence of life on Mars in Mars exploration missions [20]. Hays et al. in [20] note that the presence of bio-signatures and their subsequent detection is important for the success of Mars exploration missions. It is also important to ensure that Mars missions preserve existing bio-signatures that

Generic Computing-Assisted Geometric Search for Human Design and Origins

The preservation and improved understanding of bio-signature can be achieved

Moreover, the use of analog terrestrial Mars environment enables developing nations to participate in Mars exploration studies. In this role, analog terrestrial Mars environment can be used as low cost alternative prior to actual outer space exploration. This helps developing nations in making better decisions as regards achieving planetary protection. However, this has not been explored in [20].

The potential bio-signatures that can be detected in a Mars exploration mission are dependent on the defined science case. Six classes of bio-signatures have been identified by the Mars 2020 science definition team [20]. These are organic molecules, minerals, macro structures, chemistry and isotopes. The detection of any potential bio-signature in a given class enables the realization of the objectives of an

The critical role that bio-signatures play in Mars exploration missions makes it important that bio-signatures are protected from threats to their continued existence. This concern is recognised in [20, 21]. The need to protect bio-signatures has led to the need to design planetary protection strategies to protect Mars from biosignature contamination. It is recognized that Mars environment provides some native protection to prevent the total erasure of bio-signature, i.e., bio-signature

The protection capability of planetary protection strategies can be enhanced by enacting policies matched with technological developments. These technological developments ensure bio-signature preservation. Inter-planetary protection is needed in two roles. These are the forward prevention role and the backward prevention role. In the forward protection role, planetary preservation and contamination preservation ensures that microbes are not taken from earth into Mars. The backward preservation role is important for Mars sample return missions. It ensures that samples being brought from Mars are not contaminated on their way to

The forward protection role can be realized by sterilizing Mars exploration vehicles. Sterilization of Mars exploration vehicles ensures that the search for extraterrestrial life is not compromised by earth originating microbes [22]. Sterilization also ensures that disease causing microbes are not brought to the earth by Mars

However, planetary protection strategies are rarely ideal and a 100% protection is not readily achieved. In addition, planetary protection procedures are expensive and influenced by the science case associated with a Mars exploration campaign [22]. The non-ideal performance implies that the chance of detecting pristine biosignatures might be slightly diminished. Therefore, the non-ideal performance of planetary protection via sterilization constitutes a source of interference to

outer space project investigating the occurrence of extra-terrestrial life.

the location where further analysis will be carried out [10].

exploration vehicles in Mars sample return missions.

by using Analog terrestrial Mars environments. Hays et al. [20] recognize the usefulness and suitability of Analog terrestrial Mars environments. Analog terrestrial Mars environments enable the conduct of low cost investigation for the presence of life on Mars. The use of analog terrestrial Mars environments enables scientists to understand relations between different bio-signatures. This is important in determining the cues to be searched for in Mars exploration missions such

can be found on Mars.

contamination.

111

that planetary contamination is prevented.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86809

The outcomes of a space exploration for a defined science case can be classified into four categories [16]. These outcomes would be that the location or body in outer space is inhabitable, probably habitable, habitable and inhabited [16]. A motive to categorize any location as being described by any of these four outcomes is dependent on the science case and the instruments aboard the exploration vehicle. This can be seen in the case of the Europa Lander project aimed at surveying the Jovian moon, Europa [16]. The Europa Lander aims to determine the habitability of Europa and investigate its surface properties and dynamics. The instrumentation enabling the acquisition of Europa's samples aboard the Europa Lander are the sample ingestion port, and the context remote sensing instrument package.

The discussion in [17] extends [13–16] by raising the question of the utility that can be derived from Martian samples obtained in Mars sample return missions. The use of randomly acquired samples from Mars is insufficient to answer the queries as regards the origin of life on Mars and other locations such as the Jovian moon, Europa. The use of sample heterogeneity is thereby proposed. Sample heterogeneity refers to the acquisition of samples from different locations on Mars or in Europa. The incorporation of sample heterogeneity enables the acquisition of Mars samples from different locations on Mars. These samples are returned to earth for future analysis. The transport of samples from Mars to earth is done in such a manner that the contamination of earth by these Martian samples is prevented. The assurance that Mars samples pose no contamination risk to earth is handled by the space agency coordinating the Mars exploration missions. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an example of a space agency that can play this role.

The study in [17] aims to study Mars's environment in the view of the M-2020 mission. The intended study is with the following aims. The first aim is analysing the geological processes (with emphasis on determining the role of water). The second is evaluating the biological history of Mars. The third is determining Mars's evolutionary timeline. The fourth is determining relations between components in Mars's geological system. The fifth is to acquire samples enabling the reconstruction of the processes that have influenced the Martian dynamo. The sixth is quantifying human risks associated with Mars exploration.

The discussion in [13–16] shows that bio-signatures are important for the conduct of outer space missions searching for evidence of extra-terrestrial life. The search and successful detection of bio-signatures are important for Mars exploration missions [13–15] and the Europa Lander project [16]. The category of bio-signature being sought influences the composition of the deployed instrument payload. The approach in [13–19] assumes that a planet or outer space location where the evidence of life is being sought must have bio-signature(s). Therefore, the search for extra-terrestrial life in the environment of outer space is hinged on the existence of the bio-signature.

However, bio-signature existence in outer space locations is threatened because space exploration vehicles can be contaminated with microbes. This contamination can take place on earth prior to launch. The resulting contamination can cause the deployed instrumentation payload to detect earth originating microbes or microorganisms in outer space. This leads to a wrong conclusion as regards the detection of extra-terrestrial life. In addition, such planetary contamination could render a given location or body in outer space infeasible for searching for extra-terrestrial life. Therefore, planets should be protected against microbial contamination. This concern has led to the emergence of planetary protection.

#### Generic Computing-Assisted Geometric Search for Human Design and Origins DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86809

Bio-signature preservation is important for the success of detecting extraterrestrial life in Mars exploration missions. The detection of bio-signatures can be used to determine the absence or presence of life on Mars in Mars exploration missions [20]. Hays et al. in [20] note that the presence of bio-signatures and their subsequent detection is important for the success of Mars exploration missions. It is also important to ensure that Mars missions preserve existing bio-signatures that can be found on Mars.

The preservation and improved understanding of bio-signature can be achieved by using Analog terrestrial Mars environments. Hays et al. [20] recognize the usefulness and suitability of Analog terrestrial Mars environments. Analog terrestrial Mars environments enable the conduct of low cost investigation for the presence of life on Mars. The use of analog terrestrial Mars environments enables scientists to understand relations between different bio-signatures. This is important in determining the cues to be searched for in Mars exploration missions such that planetary contamination is prevented.

Moreover, the use of analog terrestrial Mars environment enables developing nations to participate in Mars exploration studies. In this role, analog terrestrial Mars environment can be used as low cost alternative prior to actual outer space exploration. This helps developing nations in making better decisions as regards achieving planetary protection. However, this has not been explored in [20].

The potential bio-signatures that can be detected in a Mars exploration mission are dependent on the defined science case. Six classes of bio-signatures have been identified by the Mars 2020 science definition team [20]. These are organic molecules, minerals, macro structures, chemistry and isotopes. The detection of any potential bio-signature in a given class enables the realization of the objectives of an outer space project investigating the occurrence of extra-terrestrial life.

The critical role that bio-signatures play in Mars exploration missions makes it important that bio-signatures are protected from threats to their continued existence. This concern is recognised in [20, 21]. The need to protect bio-signatures has led to the need to design planetary protection strategies to protect Mars from biosignature contamination. It is recognized that Mars environment provides some native protection to prevent the total erasure of bio-signature, i.e., bio-signature contamination.

The protection capability of planetary protection strategies can be enhanced by enacting policies matched with technological developments. These technological developments ensure bio-signature preservation. Inter-planetary protection is needed in two roles. These are the forward prevention role and the backward prevention role. In the forward protection role, planetary preservation and contamination preservation ensures that microbes are not taken from earth into Mars. The backward preservation role is important for Mars sample return missions. It ensures that samples being brought from Mars are not contaminated on their way to the location where further analysis will be carried out [10].

The forward protection role can be realized by sterilizing Mars exploration vehicles. Sterilization of Mars exploration vehicles ensures that the search for extraterrestrial life is not compromised by earth originating microbes [22]. Sterilization also ensures that disease causing microbes are not brought to the earth by Mars exploration vehicles in Mars sample return missions.

However, planetary protection strategies are rarely ideal and a 100% protection is not readily achieved. In addition, planetary protection procedures are expensive and influenced by the science case associated with a Mars exploration campaign [22]. The non-ideal performance implies that the chance of detecting pristine biosignatures might be slightly diminished. Therefore, the non-ideal performance of planetary protection via sterilization constitutes a source of interference to

led to their use in Mars exploration missions. In this case, small satellite is depen-

ability of Europa and investigate its surface properties and dynamics. The instrumentation enabling the acquisition of Europa's samples aboard the Europa Lander are the sample ingestion port, and the context remote sensing instrument

The outcomes of a space exploration for a defined science case can be classified into four categories [16]. These outcomes would be that the location or body in outer space is inhabitable, probably habitable, habitable and inhabited [16]. A motive to categorize any location as being described by any of these four outcomes is dependent on the science case and the instruments aboard the exploration vehicle. This can be seen in the case of the Europa Lander project aimed at surveying the Jovian moon, Europa [16]. The Europa Lander aims to determine the habit-

The discussion in [17] extends [13–16] by raising the question of the utility that can be derived from Martian samples obtained in Mars sample return missions. The use of randomly acquired samples from Mars is insufficient to answer the queries as regards the origin of life on Mars and other locations such as the Jovian moon, Europa. The use of sample heterogeneity is thereby proposed. Sample heterogeneity refers to the acquisition of samples from different locations on Mars or in Europa. The incorporation of sample heterogeneity enables the acquisition of Mars samples from different locations on Mars. These samples are returned to earth for future analysis. The transport of samples from Mars to earth is done in such a manner that the contamination of earth by these Martian samples is prevented. The assurance that Mars samples pose no contamination risk to earth is handled by the space agency coordinating the Mars exploration missions. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an example of a space agency that can play

The study in [17] aims to study Mars's environment in the view of the M-2020 mission. The intended study is with the following aims. The first aim is analysing the geological processes (with emphasis on determining the role of water). The second is evaluating the biological history of Mars. The third is determining Mars's evolutionary timeline. The fourth is determining relations between components in Mars's geological system. The fifth is to acquire samples enabling the reconstruction of the processes that have influenced the Martian dynamo. The sixth is quantifying

The discussion in [13–16] shows that bio-signatures are important for the conduct of outer space missions searching for evidence of extra-terrestrial life. The search and successful detection of bio-signatures are important for Mars exploration missions [13–15] and the Europa Lander project [16]. The category of bio-signature being sought influences the composition of the deployed instrument payload. The approach in [13–19] assumes that a planet or outer space location where the evidence of life is being sought must have bio-signature(s). Therefore, the search for extra-terrestrial life in the environment of outer space is hinged on the existence of

However, bio-signature existence in outer space locations is threatened because space exploration vehicles can be contaminated with microbes. This contamination can take place on earth prior to launch. The resulting contamination can cause the deployed instrumentation payload to detect earth originating microbes or microorganisms in outer space. This leads to a wrong conclusion as regards the detection of extra-terrestrial life. In addition, such planetary contamination could render a given location or body in outer space infeasible for searching for extra-terrestrial life. Therefore, planets should be protected against microbial contamination. This con-

human risks associated with Mars exploration.

cern has led to the emergence of planetary protection.

dent on the science case definition.

Planetology - Future Explorations

package.

this role.

the bio-signature.

110

### Planetology - Future Explorations

bio-signature detection. The effect of interference as observed here also affects the conduct of radio astronomy in the form of radio interference. This has received attention [23, 24]. The interference challenge posed by non-ideal sterilization can be addressed by finding another marker that can signify the presence or occurrence of life in Mars. This is important to ensure the realization of Mars exploration mission.

3.2 Mathematical framework: Martian geometric Panspermia theory

Generic Computing-Assisted Geometric Search for Human Design and Origins

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86809

forms), life supporting locations, and life recording locations.

(iii) Life recording locations in the universe respectively.

the existence of extra-terrestrial life can be found.

evidence of intelligent behaviour in bacteria [27–29].

information storage and processing efficiency.

mechanisms and the earth is presented in Figure 1.

Ϛ<sup>a</sup> is called the root location.

of storing information.

113

The discussion here presents a mathematical model for describing the model of the universe as presented in the proposed Martian geometric Panspermia theory. The mathematical model considers the universe as comprising multiple locations, life conveying locations, life conveying material or mechanisms (or other life

Life supporting locations are those locations where the conditions exist to support the presence of extra-terrestrial life. Let Ϛ, ζ and ϔ denote the set of (i) Life conveying locations, (ii) Life conveying mechanisms aided by micro-organisms and

Life conveying locations in this context refer to locations on Mars where meteorites to be ejected at a later epoch are located. Life conveying mechanisms describe the dynamics and processes ensuring the movement of ejected meteorites from Mars to earth. This is realizable while maintaining micro-organism composition in ejected meteorites. Life recording locations are those locations where the proof of

Ϛ ¼ Ϛ1; Ϛ2; Ϛ3; …; Ϛ<sup>A</sup>

ϔ ¼ ϔ1; ϔ2; ϔ3; …; ϔ<sup>F</sup>

Life can be conveyed from location Ϛa;Ϛ<sup>a</sup> ϵ Ϛ to locations Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>1</sup>; Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>1</sup>ϵ Ϛ,Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>4</sup>; Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>4</sup> ϵ Ϛ and Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>7</sup>; Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>7</sup> ϵ Ϛ via life conveying material ζb; ζbϵ ζ and ζ<sup>b</sup>þ<sup>1</sup>; ζ<sup>b</sup>þ<sup>1</sup>ϵ ζ. For the purposes here, the locations Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>1</sup>,Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>4</sup> and Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>7</sup> Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>2</sup>; Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>2</sup> ϵ Ϛ, Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>3</sup>; Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>3</sup> ϵ Ϛ,Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>5</sup>;Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>5</sup> ϵ Ϛ and Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>6</sup>; Ϛ<sup>a</sup>þ<sup>6</sup> ϵ Ϛ are life supporting locations. The location

The locations ϔ<sup>f</sup> ; ϔ<sup>f</sup> ϵ ϔ; ϔ<sup>f</sup>þ<sup>1</sup>; ϔ<sup>f</sup>þ<sup>1</sup> ϵ ϔ; ϔ<sup>f</sup>þ<sup>2</sup>; ϔ<sup>f</sup>þ<sup>2</sup> ϵ ϔ act as life recording locations in the universe. They contain evidence of the action of life transfer process mechanisms by different micro-organisms. The action of life transfer by different micro-organisms is considered intelligent. Such a notion is supported by the

The notion that bacteria and microorganisms exhibit intelligent behaviour has received considerable interest [27–29]. The intelligent behaviour exhibited by microorganisms has been thought to evolve in response to surviving in their host environment. Intelligence requires the ability to act on information obtained from the environment. The capability to demonstrate intelligent behaviour implies that microorganisms can respond to environmental conditions from a base of stored information [27]. Therefore, it is feasible to think that microorganisms are capable

It is inefficient for microorganisms to store all information relating to the processes in which they are engaged if all of such information is not required to develop survival strategies. An important piece of information that is considered not to be stored by the microorganism is those related to the pre-determination of geometrical forms of cell aggregation patterns. The storage of the information on the pre-determined geometrical forms is considered to increase micro-organism information overhead. Hence, it is not stored so that the microorganism can have high

A scenario showing the relations between life recording locations, live conveying

(1)

(3)

ζ ¼ ζ1; ζ2; ζ<sup>3</sup> f g ; …; ζ<sup>B</sup> (2)
