**Abstract**

Cognitive neuroscientific approaches to language(s) and brain in the twentyfirst century have made an important contribution to understanding the importance of the relationship of invariance and variation of language mappings across individuals, the dynamic nature of neurological processing of languages throughout the life cycle, and more ecologically valid modeling of cognitive processing that focus on the interactive nature of linguistic perception and production in the cultural context. Beginning with Ojemann's unique contribution to language mappings through cortical stimulation mapping (CSM) and continuing through to fMRI studies, contemporary neuroscience research paradigms have moved toward analyzing neural networks and connectivity, the relevance of *embodied cognition*, and the complex nature of signification and meaning-generation. This chapter presents important interactions between recent cognitive neuroscience studies of language and brain using proficiency with semiotic principles and semiotic theory as given in Peirce, Eco, Lotman, and Sebeok.

**Keywords:** fMRI, proficiency, embodied cognition, signification, non-arbitrariness, autopoiesis, functional connectivity, default mode network

*"For an event to become linguistic…a great many brains must play in unison" – D. Bolinger ([1], p. 233)*

*"Nevertheless, it deserves more emphasis that functional localization is an intermediate goal, or the 'homework problem' that requires figuring out where things are, before scrutiny turns to the harder and deeper question of how things work." D. Poeppel ([2], p. 4)*
