**1. Introduction**

The physical environments shaped according to the needs of the societies contribute to the formation of different environmental images in their minds by arousing different perceptions in individuals during and after use. The environmental images formed in the minds of individuals may vary depending on the physical, social, and cultural characteristics of the individuals and their experiences [1]. The reason for this variability is that individuals choose, organize, and add meaning to what they see by establishing a personal relationship with their physical environment according to their needs and goals [2]. The image formed in the individual mind limits what is seen, while at the same time it allows some to be seen more. In this context, the perception of the physical environment varies according to time, situation, and people.

Perception is the interpretation of the sensory data coming from the sensory organs of individuals through a mental process in order to become a meaningful whole [3]. While individuals remain indifferent to some of the data coming from sensory organs, others are interested and curious [4]. In this context, the perception of the physical environment also varies according to the individual's interest, curiosity, and experiences. Even different experiences of the individual over time may cause the individual's perceptions of the physical environment to differ.

Perception, which is one of the main fields of study of psychology, is mostly seen as environmental perception or spatial perception in studies related to city and architecture [5]. Spaces containing physical concrete components become meaningful with the experiences in the minds of individuals and become an abstract image. This abstract image, which emerges as a result of the perception of the individual, helps to create an image and identity of the place in the minds of individuals. The image and identity of the space formed in the minds allow individuals to define, perceive, and use the space. The increase in the experiences and the time spent in the space also contributes to the development of the image and identity in minds [6].

Perception process, symbolic, visual, emotional, and selective perception [7]; or cognitive/mental and sensory perception [8] is classified in various ways. However, these classifications are of similar content, and it is emphasized that the data obtained from the physical environment through the senses are coded, conceptualized, stored, and remembered in different ways specific to the minds of each individual in line with the needs, expectations, and value judgments of individuals. The physical environment containing concrete data is experienced with sensory perceptions and forms the cognitive perception by being shaped in the mind of the individual. The formation and development of cognitive perception is affected by the time spent by the individual in the space, the place in the mind, storage, and remembering the place in accordance with his experiences [5]. In this context, the concretely perceived space that meets the physiological, psychological, and social needs of individuals gains meaning abstractly through experiences in the individual's mind [9].

Architects and urban planners, who are the organizers of space, can influence the process of creating an image of a space-specific identity in the minds of the users, paying attention to the interaction of external stimuli while creating the environmental image. It is the form, color, or arrangement that makes the image of the space vividly identifiable and keeps it in memory for a long time. However, the form, color or arrangement used by architects and urban planners will gain meaning with the perceptions and experiences of the users and will take place in their memories. In this context, researchers used the cognitive maps included in Tolman's [10] study in order to determine the perception style of the places depending on the users' experiences. In cognitive maps, the images that occur in the minds of individuals experiencing and living in the process [11] are expressed by drawing techniques [12]. In other words, it is a way of expressing a psychological process in which individuals process, store, encode, and recall the data obtained from places as a result of their experiences.

On an urban scale, Lynch classified urban images perceived by individuals in five groups as paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks as shown in **Table 1**. In his study according to these classifications, he states that individuals who experience less space describe regional elements and ways, and those who experience more describe consecutive elements and reference points. In addition, the study emphasizes that the relationship between the individual and the place is in interaction and that identity, structure, and meaning are important in the formation of the image of the place [13].

**53**

*Assessment of Perception of Physical Environment in the Context of Cognitive Maps…*

In another study supporting Lynch's work, regional type maps with sequential and spatial elements emphasizing paths and consecutive elements are highlighted in the drawing of cognitive maps [15]. Then, respectively, Moore [16], Hardwick et al. [17], Downs and Stea [11], and Herman and Siegel [18] conducted similar studies using adults and children. Afterward, Siegel and White [19] stated that the paths and reference points experienced by individuals are mostly used in cognitive maps and that the elements depicted in cognitive maps increase with experience. Herman et al. [20] also found that the number of images remaining in the mind increased with experience in cognitive maps drawn by college students in different time periods. In addition, it was seen that male students used more reference points than female students. In his study, Kuipers [21] proposes that a cognitive map consists of five different types of information: topological, metric, route definitions, fixed

In recent years, in many researches in Turkey, in order to identify individual elements of the environment of perception and memory, cognitive maps are used. Ülkeryıldız et al. [22] found that in the cognitive maps of foreign students, predominantly sequential drawings and reference points and paths were included. In this context, the data obtained differed from Lynch's description of regional elements and paths of individuals with little experience in space. Then, Topçu and Topçu [23] used cognitive maps to determine the perceptual and spatial legibility of Selcuk

Karadağ and Turgut [24] posed questions to the students of the Faculty of Literature to determine the perception of İzmir's urban environment and tried to determine their level of satisfaction with the city. In this study, the students were asked to write the associations related to İzmir and reflect them on cognitive maps. The data obtained were digitized by statistical methods and transferred to tables and graphs. In this way, the differences and similarities in the perception of the city were tried to be determined comparatively according to the educational and

Özdemir requested the first and fourth grade architecture and engineering students to draw cognitive maps of the city of Yozgat using Lynch's urban images. In the study, it was stated that the number of elements in cognitive maps increased as experience and education increased. In addition, it was seen that architecture students depicted the city by drawing more details than engineering students: fourth grade architecture students, while drawing spaces with linear and curved lines, more detailed; first grade architecture and fourth grade engineering students, scattered way of expressing the places connected by the roads. In this study, the issue that should be considered is the effect of architectural education on the cognitive maps containing more details. In spite of their four-grade education, engineering students have used expression techniques similar to those of architecture students

Öztürk examined the cognitive maps of university students who experienced the city for a short time and individuals over the age of 60 who have experienced the

University Campus and to develop suggestions for improvement.

cultural background and interests of the students.

who have not received education [6].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90660*

*Categorization features of cognitive maps [14].*

**Paths Shared travel corridors, e.g., streetscape** Edges Linear and enclosing but not functioning Districts Large spaces with common features Nodes Major points where behavior is focused Landmarks Distinctive features used for reference

features, and sensory images.

**Table 1.**

*Assessment of Perception of Physical Environment in the Context of Cognitive Maps… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90660*


#### **Table 1.**

*Cognitive and Intermedial Semiotics*

minds [6].

individual's mind [9].

a result of their experiences.

image of the place [13].

Perception is the interpretation of the sensory data coming from the sensory organs of individuals through a mental process in order to become a meaningful whole [3]. While individuals remain indifferent to some of the data coming from sensory organs, others are interested and curious [4]. In this context, the perception of the physical environment also varies according to the individual's interest, curiosity, and experiences. Even different experiences of the individual over time may cause the individual's perceptions of the physical environment to differ. Perception, which is one of the main fields of study of psychology, is mostly seen as environmental perception or spatial perception in studies related to city and architecture [5]. Spaces containing physical concrete components become meaningful with the experiences in the minds of individuals and become an abstract image. This abstract image, which emerges as a result of the perception of the individual, helps to create an image and identity of the place in the minds of individuals. The image and identity of the space formed in the minds allow individuals to define, perceive, and use the space. The increase in the experiences and the time spent in the space also contributes to the development of the image and identity in

Perception process, symbolic, visual, emotional, and selective perception [7]; or cognitive/mental and sensory perception [8] is classified in various ways. However, these classifications are of similar content, and it is emphasized that the data obtained from the physical environment through the senses are coded, conceptualized, stored, and remembered in different ways specific to the minds of each individual in line with the needs, expectations, and value judgments of individuals. The physical environment containing concrete data is experienced with sensory perceptions and forms the cognitive perception by being shaped in the mind of the individual. The formation and development of cognitive perception is affected by the time spent by the individual in the space, the place in the mind, storage, and remembering the place in accordance with his experiences [5]. In this context, the concretely perceived space that meets the physiological, psychological, and social needs of individuals gains meaning abstractly through experiences in the

Architects and urban planners, who are the organizers of space, can influence the process of creating an image of a space-specific identity in the minds of the users, paying attention to the interaction of external stimuli while creating the environmental image. It is the form, color, or arrangement that makes the image of the space vividly identifiable and keeps it in memory for a long time. However, the form, color or arrangement used by architects and urban planners will gain meaning with the perceptions and experiences of the users and will take place in their memories. In this context, researchers used the cognitive maps included in Tolman's [10] study in order to determine the perception style of the places depending on the users' experiences. In cognitive maps, the images that occur in the minds of individuals experiencing and living in the process [11] are expressed by drawing techniques [12]. In other words, it is a way of expressing a psychological process in which individuals process, store, encode, and recall the data obtained from places as

On an urban scale, Lynch classified urban images perceived by individuals in five groups as paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks as shown in **Table 1**. In his study according to these classifications, he states that individuals who experience less space describe regional elements and ways, and those who experience more describe consecutive elements and reference points. In addition, the study emphasizes that the relationship between the individual and the place is in interaction and that identity, structure, and meaning are important in the formation of the

**52**

*Categorization features of cognitive maps [14].*

In another study supporting Lynch's work, regional type maps with sequential and spatial elements emphasizing paths and consecutive elements are highlighted in the drawing of cognitive maps [15]. Then, respectively, Moore [16], Hardwick et al. [17], Downs and Stea [11], and Herman and Siegel [18] conducted similar studies using adults and children. Afterward, Siegel and White [19] stated that the paths and reference points experienced by individuals are mostly used in cognitive maps and that the elements depicted in cognitive maps increase with experience. Herman et al. [20] also found that the number of images remaining in the mind increased with experience in cognitive maps drawn by college students in different time periods. In addition, it was seen that male students used more reference points than female students. In his study, Kuipers [21] proposes that a cognitive map consists of five different types of information: topological, metric, route definitions, fixed features, and sensory images.

In recent years, in many researches in Turkey, in order to identify individual elements of the environment of perception and memory, cognitive maps are used. Ülkeryıldız et al. [22] found that in the cognitive maps of foreign students, predominantly sequential drawings and reference points and paths were included. In this context, the data obtained differed from Lynch's description of regional elements and paths of individuals with little experience in space. Then, Topçu and Topçu [23] used cognitive maps to determine the perceptual and spatial legibility of Selcuk University Campus and to develop suggestions for improvement.

Karadağ and Turgut [24] posed questions to the students of the Faculty of Literature to determine the perception of İzmir's urban environment and tried to determine their level of satisfaction with the city. In this study, the students were asked to write the associations related to İzmir and reflect them on cognitive maps. The data obtained were digitized by statistical methods and transferred to tables and graphs. In this way, the differences and similarities in the perception of the city were tried to be determined comparatively according to the educational and cultural background and interests of the students.

Özdemir requested the first and fourth grade architecture and engineering students to draw cognitive maps of the city of Yozgat using Lynch's urban images. In the study, it was stated that the number of elements in cognitive maps increased as experience and education increased. In addition, it was seen that architecture students depicted the city by drawing more details than engineering students: fourth grade architecture students, while drawing spaces with linear and curved lines, more detailed; first grade architecture and fourth grade engineering students, scattered way of expressing the places connected by the roads. In this study, the issue that should be considered is the effect of architectural education on the cognitive maps containing more details. In spite of their four-grade education, engineering students have used expression techniques similar to those of architecture students who have not received education [6].

Öztürk examined the cognitive maps of university students who experienced the city for a short time and individuals over the age of 60 who have experienced the

city from past to present in order to determine the images of Eskisehir. In this study, individuals who experienced the city in different periods were selected in order to determine the changing city memory elements [25].

In another study conducted in Eskisehir, first grade students of architecture were asked to draw cognitive maps of their campuses by using paths, edges, nodes, districts, and landmarks to determine the level of perceivability, imageability, and legibility of settlement by the students. Then, by the evaluation of cognitive maps of the students, it is seen that landmarks are located in the memory of most of the individuals. Then, paths, districts, nodes, edges, and educational buildings are listed respectively in cognitive maps [26].

Cognitive maps have been the subject of many studies in order to determine individuals' perception of space. The cognitive maps obtained in these researches were classified and analyzed in the context of Lynch's urban images, and, thus, the perceptions of the individuals were determined. However, these findings have been made as a result of comparing the data of urban images with each other. In these studies, the data obtained from the comparison of urban images are interpreted, and it is stated that experiences affect the perception of space. In this context, in this study, first of all urban images, then each physical image is classified and analyzed in more detail. In addition to these analyses, elements other than urban image classifications in cognitive maps were statistically analyzed. These analyses were conducted to measure the effects of experiences on cognitive maps. In addition, the effects of architectural education on the perception of space were determined by classifying visual expression techniques in cognitive maps.
