1. Introduction

Recycling animal manure for use as a low-cost organic fertilizer has resulted a positive effect on the growth and yield of a wide variety of crops and promoted the restoration of ecologic and economic functions of soil. The organic matter (OM) content of composted animal manure is high and its addition to agricultural soils often improves soil physical, chemical, and biological properties [1]. Soil organic amendments alleviate OM that improves the properties of soils

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

through increasing nutrient availability and water holding capacity, total pore space, aggregate stability, erosion resistance, temperature insulation, and decreasing soil density. Antonious [1] reported that sewage sludge (SS) and chicken manure (CM), that must be disposed, are excellent fertilizers.

hygroscopic material in nature. These properties make biochar very effective at retaining watersoluble nutrients and make it an environment for many beneficial soil microorganisms. Studies have shown that foliar N concentrations of crops decreased when biochar was added to soil [16]. Rondon et al. [17] showed the potential of biochar applications for managing N input in agricultural systems, while indicating the requirements for more field studies to provide more explana-

Biochar and Animal Manure Impact on Soil, Crop Yield and Quality

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.77008

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Regarding the need for healthy food, the demand for low cholesterol meat products and high protein sources, as well as agricultural production and economic incentive have led to a tremendous expansion in the worldwide poultry industry [18]. Due to the rapid growth in the poultry industry. Chicken manure (CM) generation is currently accessible in increasing quantities, resulting in unplanned disposal to soil with potential negative environmental consequences [19]. Manures, especially poultry litter and feedlot manure, may raise or maintain pH in acidic and near neutral soils via a liming effect because they contain some CaCO3, which originates in the animal diet [20]. Animal manures are not just a waste material requiring disposal, but a crucial raw material needed to enhance plant production. If animal manure applied properly, it can replace significant amounts of mineral fertilizers and save energy. Over a billion tons of animal manure is produced annually in the US [21]. Organic animal manure is a rich source of plant nutrients and soil amendment when used at the adequate rate of application. Organic waste is a source of plant macro- and micronutrients, organic matter (OM), recovers soil quality, and increases soil pH in acid soils. However, nutrients, such as P and N build up in the soil if application rates are higher than the nutrient requirements of the intended crops. An increase of organic waste originated from different humans and productive activities is a continuous concern. Waste application to soil is proposed as a solution to disposal problem. This practice is

popular in the agricultural fields because of the value of this waste as organic fertilizer.

overview

2.1. Municipal sewage sludge

reduced nutrient availability.

2. Sewage sludge, horse manure, chicken manure, and vermicompost: an

Municipal sewage sludge (SS), also known as biosolids (Figure 1) is derived from wastewater treatment plants in which wastewater, primarily derived from domestic sources or discharges from commercial and industrial enterprises. Most of these enterprises carry out pretreatments prior to discharging wastes into the conventional community sewer system. As a result of pretreatment, total fertilizer nutrient concentration rarely exceeds 10% in most manure sources and frequently is a fraction of that. Commercial fertilizers usually contain about 30% nutrients by weight. Low nutrient concentration increases the time and cost of transportation and land application [22]. Nutrients in most commercial fertilizers are designed to be rapidly available to crops when applied to the soil. Whereas, the organic nitrogen fraction of manure reduces the availability and predictability of the manure as a nitrogen source because the availability of organic nutrients is dependent on soil microbial activity. In addition, the chemistry of manure makes inorganic nitrogen in manure prone to volatilization losses when it is surface applied. Successful use of organic manure fertilizer requires adjusting application rates to account for

tions and understanding of biochar effects on soil biological N2 fixation.

Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum, formerly Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) belong to the Solanaceae family. Tomato has achieved a remarkable status among other vegetables because of its rich nutritional composition and widespread consumption. It is one of the major vegetable crops grown in almost every country of the world. Fresh tomato fruits contain several nutritional compounds including vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and minerals [2] and have been shown to reduce the risks of cardiovascular diseases and certain types of cancer, such as prostate, lung, and stomach cancers [3]. Accordingly, enhancing the nutritional value of fresh tomatoes and tomato products require frequent investigations to evaluate the influences of agricultural practices, such as the use of fertilizers, organic soil amendments, and the environmental conditions on tomato yield and fruit quality. It was demonstrated that increasing N fertilization under field conditions reduced the fruit vitamin C concentration [4]. This is due to the fact that the high N concentration in the fertilizers favors plant leaf area development, thereby lessening light penetration in the canopy and fruit vitamin C development. Similarly, the negative effects of N application on vitamin C contents occur in other vegetables such as potatoes [5]. The typical taste of tomato is mainly attributed to soluble sugars, organic acids and volatile compounds. Sugars are important macronutrients of the human diet and plants. During tomato ripening total soluble solids (TSS), such as sugars (fructose and glucose) are found to be predominant in domesticated tomato fruits. Tomato possesses a wide range of bioactive compounds as a pool of antioxidants that have positive effects on health, associated with their anti-carcinogenic and antiatherogenic potential [6]. These bioactive compounds include carotenoids (vitamin A), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), phenolic compounds, and tocopherols (Vitamin E), which are at higher concentrations in the skin followed by seed and pulp fractions [7]. In addition, concentrations of bioactive compounds in tomato fruit are significantly influenced by tomato genotype [8, 9], environmental factors and agricultural techniques [10]. Regarding tomato phenolic compounds content, chlorogenic acid and rutin have been found to be the most important flavonoids in tomato. Butta and Spaulding [11] found high concentrations of total phenols in tomato fruits at the early stages of fruit development, then phenols concentration declined rapidly during fruit ripening, although other authors have shown that the content of total phenols remained stable during ripening [12].

The literature review verified the potential of biochar, a product of wood pyrolysis, applications for improving N input in agricultural systems, while indicating the needs for long-term field studies to better understand the effect of biochar on biological N2 fixation. When biomass, such as wood, manure, or leaves, is heated in a closed container with little or no available air, this process is known as pyrolysis. Research results indicated that the conversion of biomass into biochar can not only result in renewable energy (synthetic gas and bio oil), but also decrease the content of CO2 in the atmosphere [13]. When biochar was used in column leaching experiments to assess its ability to hold nutrients, results indicated that biochar effectively reduced the total amount of nitrate (NO3), ammonium (NH4), and phosphate in leachates by 34, 35, and 21%, respectively, relative to native soil alone [14]. The adsorption of N by biochar particles decreases NH4 and NO3 loss during composting and after manure applications, providing a mechanism for releasing nitrogen fertilizers in a slow release process [15]. Biochar is a porous and hygroscopic material in nature. These properties make biochar very effective at retaining watersoluble nutrients and make it an environment for many beneficial soil microorganisms. Studies have shown that foliar N concentrations of crops decreased when biochar was added to soil [16]. Rondon et al. [17] showed the potential of biochar applications for managing N input in agricultural systems, while indicating the requirements for more field studies to provide more explanations and understanding of biochar effects on soil biological N2 fixation.

Regarding the need for healthy food, the demand for low cholesterol meat products and high protein sources, as well as agricultural production and economic incentive have led to a tremendous expansion in the worldwide poultry industry [18]. Due to the rapid growth in the poultry industry. Chicken manure (CM) generation is currently accessible in increasing quantities, resulting in unplanned disposal to soil with potential negative environmental consequences [19]. Manures, especially poultry litter and feedlot manure, may raise or maintain pH in acidic and near neutral soils via a liming effect because they contain some CaCO3, which originates in the animal diet [20]. Animal manures are not just a waste material requiring disposal, but a crucial raw material needed to enhance plant production. If animal manure applied properly, it can replace significant amounts of mineral fertilizers and save energy. Over a billion tons of animal manure is produced annually in the US [21]. Organic animal manure is a rich source of plant nutrients and soil amendment when used at the adequate rate of application. Organic waste is a source of plant macro- and micronutrients, organic matter (OM), recovers soil quality, and increases soil pH in acid soils. However, nutrients, such as P and N build up in the soil if application rates are higher than the nutrient requirements of the intended crops. An increase of organic waste originated from different humans and productive activities is a continuous concern. Waste application to soil is proposed as a solution to disposal problem. This practice is popular in the agricultural fields because of the value of this waste as organic fertilizer.
