Preface

Ultra-wideband (UWB) technology is a radio technology that uses electromagnetic waves with a very low power spectral density occupying a bandwidth of more than 25% of a centre frequency, or more than 0.5GHz, for short-range remote sensing, high-bandwidth communi‐ cations or object positioning. As UWB systems exploit a very large frequency band, they can provide high-range resolution for sensors, radars, object positioning and a high transmission rate for wireless communication systems. This feature of UWB technology has motivated researchers to develop a range of interesting applications of UWB systems. They include person localization and tracking at security operation and disaster events, contactless moni‐ toring of breathing frequency and heart rate of human beings, medical and industrial appli‐ cations of microwave imaging, ground penetrating and automotive radars, positioning systems, impedance spectroscopy, wireless communication systems, etc.

The detailed analyses of state-of-the-art UWB technology has shown that UWB technology can be considered very interesting, promising and having great application potential. Fol‐ lowing these facts, our book attempts to present current and emerging trends in research and development of UWB systems as well as some future expectations. The book consists of five chapters. The chapters are focused on basic components of UWB systems and on some applications of UWB systems.

The first chapter is devoted to early detection of cancers using UWB technology. By early detection, we mean identification of tumours before the symptoms become visible. This can be done clinically using modern instrumentation and procedures referred to as screening. In this field, UWB microwave imaging has been introduced as a possible tool for replacing pri‐ or screening techniques such as X-rays, ultrasound and MRI to be applied for cancer detec‐ tion. Following this idea, the chapter compares UWB technology with other screening techniques to be applied for cancer detection. Moreover, selected properties of human tis‐ sues allowing identification of tumours are studied in the chapter.

In the next chapter, an overview of the fundamental applications of frequency selective surfa‐ ces (FSS) in antenna engineering is presented. Here, special attention is paid to antennas for UWB systems employing FSS. In this field, the basic FSSs such as the capacitive and its com‐ plementary inductive FSSs to design UWB reflectors that can serve improving and stabilizing the gain of UWB antennas are considered. Thereafter, a proposed UWB single-layer FSS is used to serve the same purpose. And finally, the FSS is integrated and designed together with UWB radiators, which has resulted in lower profile along with a good performance.

It is well known that bandpass filters such as resonators (stub-loaded resonator, slot-line res‐ onator, multi-mode resonator) and notch filters are an essential part of UWB systems. These components of UWB systems are studied in the third chapter. The chapter is focused on mi‐ crostrip multimode resonator based bandpass UWB filters. Besides that, filters that decrease the interference between UWB systems and existing communication system such as WLAN and WiMAX are discussed in the chapter. It is shown that such filters can be obtained by insertion of notch bands in the UWB passband. Several novel designs have been proposed and realized to verify the proposed design scheme.

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**Feasibility of the Detection of Breast Cancer Using**

**Feasibility of the Detection of Breast Cancer Using** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79679

**Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) Technology in Comparison**

**Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) Technology in Comparison** 

Breast cancer is considered a leading cause of deaths among women. Researches state that women around the world still face this problem, and because of its unawareness, it is many times left unattended in the budding stages. If correctly screened and detected early, then with proper treatment, this could stop the metastasis and reduce the pains and difficulties of the later stages. Screening methods such as x-ray-based mammography, ultrasound, PET scan, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) clinically exist for breast tumor investigation. It is very important that screening procedures should have high specificity and sensitivity for the detection of tumors. Additionally, these methods also have to placate concerns such as ease of the patient during imaging, high-resolution images for added precise elucidation, cost effectiveness, and the capacity to detect the malignantleading tumors in the early stage. Existing imaging techniques do not meet all of these conditions concurrently. In this scenario, ultra-wide band (UWB) technology has come into play the role of a useful alternative for screening and detection of breast tumors. This chapter discusses firstly probabilistic qualitative metrics which are used in measuring the quality of testing procedures, and then later UWB testing methods are discussed in brief.

**Keywords:** cancer, breast cancer, x-rays, MRI, ultrasound, UWB, microwave

Cancer is a syndrome characterized by an uncontrolled anomalous growth of cells, originating anywhere in the human body and spreading to other nearby tissues and organs as a chain

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**with Other Screening Techniques**

**with Other Screening Techniques**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79679

Ikram E Khuda

Ikram E Khuda

**Abstract**

tomography, radars

**1. Introduction**

The fourth chapter is focused on human target monitoring using UWB radar. In this chapter, a novel concept, called range-Doppler surface, for human target analysis using UWB radar is described. The construction of range-Doppler surface involves range-Doppler imaging, adaptive threshold detection and isosurface extraction. A Keystone-transform-based range migration compensation approach is applied to allow high-quality range-Doppler imaging using UWB radar. Adaptive threshold detection is applied to detect the extended target in the range-Doppler image. And finally, range-Doppler surface is constructed by extracting an isosurface from a range-Doppler video sequence defined as a sequence of range-Doppler im‐ ages. In comparison with micro-Doppler profiles and high-resolution range profiles, range-Doppler surface contains range, Doppler and time information simultaneously. The importance of the range-Doppler surface in the field of person monitoring is illustrated by simulations and experimental results. The obtained results show that the range-Doppler sur‐ face applications open a new area in the field of human target analysis.

The final chapter deals with photonic technologies applied for UWB signal processing. It is well known, that UWB signals generated in the optical domain can benefit the advantages of the large bandwidth and compatibility with optical fibre network. With regard to the impor‐ tance of this approach, an overview of the UWB signal processing using photonic techniques is presented in this chapter. The chapter is focused on UWB signal generation and modula‐ tion using photonic approaches. The basic principles of this approach are based on linear optics, nonlinear optics, electro-optics covering a wide scope of hot topics in photonics area. The technical implementations rely on optoelectronic components, photonic integrated cir‐ cuits, or novel 2D materials. The working principle, technical implementations, pros and cons, applications and the prospects are discussed in this chapter.

The contributors hope that readers will find in our book some new and useful insight into the discussed field of UWB technology and its applications.

> **Dušan Kocur** Department of Electronics and Multimedia Communications Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics Technical University of Kosice, Slovakia

#### **Feasibility of the Detection of Breast Cancer Using Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) Technology in Comparison with Other Screening Techniques Feasibility of the Detection of Breast Cancer Using Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) Technology in Comparison with Other Screening Techniques**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79679

Ikram E Khuda Ikram E Khuda

crostrip multimode resonator based bandpass UWB filters. Besides that, filters that decrease the interference between UWB systems and existing communication system such as WLAN and WiMAX are discussed in the chapter. It is shown that such filters can be obtained by insertion of notch bands in the UWB passband. Several novel designs have been proposed

The fourth chapter is focused on human target monitoring using UWB radar. In this chapter, a novel concept, called range-Doppler surface, for human target analysis using UWB radar is described. The construction of range-Doppler surface involves range-Doppler imaging, adaptive threshold detection and isosurface extraction. A Keystone-transform-based range migration compensation approach is applied to allow high-quality range-Doppler imaging using UWB radar. Adaptive threshold detection is applied to detect the extended target in the range-Doppler image. And finally, range-Doppler surface is constructed by extracting an isosurface from a range-Doppler video sequence defined as a sequence of range-Doppler im‐ ages. In comparison with micro-Doppler profiles and high-resolution range profiles, range-Doppler surface contains range, Doppler and time information simultaneously. The importance of the range-Doppler surface in the field of person monitoring is illustrated by simulations and experimental results. The obtained results show that the range-Doppler sur‐

The final chapter deals with photonic technologies applied for UWB signal processing. It is well known, that UWB signals generated in the optical domain can benefit the advantages of the large bandwidth and compatibility with optical fibre network. With regard to the impor‐ tance of this approach, an overview of the UWB signal processing using photonic techniques is presented in this chapter. The chapter is focused on UWB signal generation and modula‐ tion using photonic approaches. The basic principles of this approach are based on linear optics, nonlinear optics, electro-optics covering a wide scope of hot topics in photonics area. The technical implementations rely on optoelectronic components, photonic integrated cir‐ cuits, or novel 2D materials. The working principle, technical implementations, pros and

The contributors hope that readers will find in our book some new and useful insight into

Department of Electronics and Multimedia Communications

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics

Technical University of Kosice, Slovakia

**Dušan Kocur**

and realized to verify the proposed design scheme.

VIII Preface

face applications open a new area in the field of human target analysis.

cons, applications and the prospects are discussed in this chapter.

the discussed field of UWB technology and its applications.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79679

#### **Abstract**

Breast cancer is considered a leading cause of deaths among women. Researches state that women around the world still face this problem, and because of its unawareness, it is many times left unattended in the budding stages. If correctly screened and detected early, then with proper treatment, this could stop the metastasis and reduce the pains and difficulties of the later stages. Screening methods such as x-ray-based mammography, ultrasound, PET scan, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) clinically exist for breast tumor investigation. It is very important that screening procedures should have high specificity and sensitivity for the detection of tumors. Additionally, these methods also have to placate concerns such as ease of the patient during imaging, high-resolution images for added precise elucidation, cost effectiveness, and the capacity to detect the malignantleading tumors in the early stage. Existing imaging techniques do not meet all of these conditions concurrently. In this scenario, ultra-wide band (UWB) technology has come into play the role of a useful alternative for screening and detection of breast tumors. This chapter discusses firstly probabilistic qualitative metrics which are used in measuring the quality of testing procedures, and then later UWB testing methods are discussed in brief.

**Keywords:** cancer, breast cancer, x-rays, MRI, ultrasound, UWB, microwave tomography, radars

### **1. Introduction**

Cancer is a syndrome characterized by an uncontrolled anomalous growth of cells, originating anywhere in the human body and spreading to other nearby tissues and organs as a chain

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

reaction and at an exponentially fast pace. The mass formed by these cells is called tumor. These can be malignant or benign. A malignant tumor can grow uncontrollably to other parts of the body. Comparatively, a benign tumor can grow but does not spread. Cancers that are defined by the existence of tumors are carcinomas and sarcomas. The spreading of cancer cells, which also characterize them as malignant, is called metastasis. New metastatic tumor in some other organ or tissue is of the same type from where it was originated. For example, if breast cancer spreads into the lungs, the cancer cells in the lungs are designated as breast cancer cells. Hence, it is quite apparent that early detection of the presence of cancer cells is a very important stage to cure it. This early detection is called screening. The whole objective of screening is to stop the metastasis stage as early as possible.

Penetration of x-rays is directly proportional to the wavelength. So, high-frequency x-rays have low power to penetrate than low-frequency x-rays. In comparison, energy of the transmitting x-rays varies inversely with the wavelength and directly with the frequency of transmission. Thus, high-frequency x-rays lead to high-energy photons and also produce better resolution of the mammogram. But, at the same time, the higher the penetrating power is of

Feasibility of the Detection of Breast Cancer Using Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) Technology…

So, although x-ray mammography is a conventional method for breast cancer screening, it is not easy to trade off between low-frequency x-rays (for higher penetration), low-energy x-rays for less ionization, and simultaneously high-energy x-rays for better resolution of the mammogram. Also, as reported in [6, 7], the rate of failure in detecting the tumor using x-ray mammography is significantly considerable and therefore cannot be neglected. This includes

An alternative to x-ray mammography is magnetic resonance imaging or MRI for detecting breast tumors or other cancer tumors. MRI offers better sensitivity as compared to X-rays, but besides the cost of the examination, the specificity is very little and can lead to erroneous diagnosis [8]. MRI does not involve x-rays and other ionizing radiations. The frequencies used are in 60 MHz range [8]. This is quite low as compared to x-rays. The human body mostly

protons). They become aligned in a magnetic field. An MRI scanner produces such a strong magnetic field (about 0.2–3 tesla), which aligns the proton "spins." The scanner also produces a current that creates a varying magnetic field of approximately 60 MHz. The protons absorb the energy from the magnetic field and flip their spins. When the field is removed, the protons gradually return to their normal spin (precession). The return process produces a radio signal that can be measured by the receivers in the scanner and converted into an image. Protons in different body tissues return to their normal spins at diverse rates, so the scanner can differentiate among various types of tissues. The scanner settings can be adjusted to produce contrasts between the body tissues. Surplus magnetic fields are used to produce three-dimensional images that may be viewed from different angles. There are many forms of MRI, but diffusion MRI and functional MRI (fMRI) are two of the most commonly used forms in biomedical imaging. Diffusion MRI measures the way water molecules diffuse through body tissues. Certain disease processes—especially tumor—can hamper this diffusion, thus helping to diagnose them. In addition to structural imaging, functional MRI can also be used to visualize functional activities. Functional MRI, or fMRI, is used to measure changes in

This is another alternative for detecting and screening the presence of tumors and specifically breast tumors. In this testing procedure, high-frequency sound waves are transmitted to the effected tissue, and without involving radiations, the received signals are converted into images. Ultrasound cannot replace the effectiveness of mammogram or MRI. It is only

O) contain hydrogen nuclei (which are

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79679

3

the x-rays, the more is their ionizing effect.

false-positive and false-negative probabilities.

comprises water and chemically water molecules (H2

blood flow to different parts of the tissues or organ.

**2.3. Ultrasound waves**

**2.2. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)**

Scientists and researchers are always in the continuum to develop the methods which could help in the finding of cancer cells well before the symptoms appear or impact of cancerous cells could be observed/felt with as convenience as possible to the patients. Modeling new cancer screening methods is an area of active research in medicine and biomedical engineering.

Screening methods available or in use at present and clinically accepted include x-ray mammography, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [1–3]. Another screening method which is still under experimental research is ultra-wide band (UWB) technology. In this chapter we shall discuss about the feasibility of UWB technology for early detection of breast cancer.

### **2. Breast cancer screening techniques**

#### **2.1. X-ray mammography**

X-rays are electromagnetic waves having wavelengths varying from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, belonging to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3 × 10<sup>16</sup>–3 × 10<sup>19</sup> Hz) and having energies from 100 eV to 100 keV. Their wavelength is shorter than UV rays and longer than gamma rays. X-ray mammography employs controlled dose of these radiations for producing images (radiographs) to early detect breast cancer before the symptoms become visible. X-ray radiography is noninvasive if used controllably, i.e., in small dose. Exhausting a standard measure of radiation dose, millisievert (mSv), the total dose for a screening mammogram with two views of each breast (four images total) is approximately 0.4 mSv [4, 5]. The radiation which a woman receives with a screening mammogram is about equal to the dose received over 7 weeks from natural surroundings or background radiation. The radiation dose from a mammogram is little more than from a chest x-ray. Interestingly, if the radiation dose from x-rays is not controlled, then they themselves can become a high risk of producing breast cancer. This effect is because of the ionizing nature of high-energy x-rays at high frequencies. Hence, using x-rays for mammography requires ensuing precise guidelines and conducting regular equipment inspections to guarantee that the equipment is safe and uses the lowest radiation dose possible for producing high-quality, investigative images. The frequency of x-rays and their energy with duration of emission (dose) set the quality of x-rays which are difficult to trade off for each other.

Penetration of x-rays is directly proportional to the wavelength. So, high-frequency x-rays have low power to penetrate than low-frequency x-rays. In comparison, energy of the transmitting x-rays varies inversely with the wavelength and directly with the frequency of transmission. Thus, high-frequency x-rays lead to high-energy photons and also produce better resolution of the mammogram. But, at the same time, the higher the penetrating power is of the x-rays, the more is their ionizing effect.

So, although x-ray mammography is a conventional method for breast cancer screening, it is not easy to trade off between low-frequency x-rays (for higher penetration), low-energy x-rays for less ionization, and simultaneously high-energy x-rays for better resolution of the mammogram. Also, as reported in [6, 7], the rate of failure in detecting the tumor using x-ray mammography is significantly considerable and therefore cannot be neglected. This includes false-positive and false-negative probabilities.

#### **2.2. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)**

reaction and at an exponentially fast pace. The mass formed by these cells is called tumor. These can be malignant or benign. A malignant tumor can grow uncontrollably to other parts of the body. Comparatively, a benign tumor can grow but does not spread. Cancers that are defined by the existence of tumors are carcinomas and sarcomas. The spreading of cancer cells, which also characterize them as malignant, is called metastasis. New metastatic tumor in some other organ or tissue is of the same type from where it was originated. For example, if breast cancer spreads into the lungs, the cancer cells in the lungs are designated as breast cancer cells. Hence, it is quite apparent that early detection of the presence of cancer cells is a very important stage to cure it. This early detection is called screening. The whole objective of

Scientists and researchers are always in the continuum to develop the methods which could help in the finding of cancer cells well before the symptoms appear or impact of cancerous cells could be observed/felt with as convenience as possible to the patients. Modeling new cancer screening methods is an area of active research in medicine and biomedical engineering. Screening methods available or in use at present and clinically accepted include x-ray mammography, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [1–3]. Another screening method which is still under experimental research is ultra-wide band (UWB) technology. In this chapter we shall discuss about the feasibility of UWB technology for early detection of

X-rays are electromagnetic waves having wavelengths varying from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, belonging to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3 × 10<sup>16</sup>–3 × 10<sup>19</sup> Hz) and having energies from 100 eV to 100 keV. Their wavelength is shorter than UV rays and longer than gamma rays. X-ray mammography employs controlled dose of these radiations for producing images (radiographs) to early detect breast cancer before the symptoms become visible. X-ray radiography is noninvasive if used controllably, i.e., in small dose. Exhausting a standard measure of radiation dose, millisievert (mSv), the total dose for a screening mammogram with two views of each breast (four images total) is approximately 0.4 mSv [4, 5]. The radiation which a woman receives with a screening mammogram is about equal to the dose received over 7 weeks from natural surroundings or background radiation. The radiation dose from a mammogram is little more than from a chest x-ray. Interestingly, if the radiation dose from x-rays is not controlled, then they themselves can become a high risk of producing breast cancer. This effect is because of the ionizing nature of high-energy x-rays at high frequencies. Hence, using x-rays for mammography requires ensuing precise guidelines and conducting regular equipment inspections to guarantee that the equipment is safe and uses the lowest radiation dose possible for producing high-quality, investigative images. The frequency of x-rays and their energy with duration of emission (dose) set the quality of x-rays

screening is to stop the metastasis stage as early as possible.

**2. Breast cancer screening techniques**

which are difficult to trade off for each other.

breast cancer.

**2.1. X-ray mammography**

2 UWB Technology and its Applications

An alternative to x-ray mammography is magnetic resonance imaging or MRI for detecting breast tumors or other cancer tumors. MRI offers better sensitivity as compared to X-rays, but besides the cost of the examination, the specificity is very little and can lead to erroneous diagnosis [8]. MRI does not involve x-rays and other ionizing radiations. The frequencies used are in 60 MHz range [8]. This is quite low as compared to x-rays. The human body mostly comprises water and chemically water molecules (H2 O) contain hydrogen nuclei (which are protons). They become aligned in a magnetic field. An MRI scanner produces such a strong magnetic field (about 0.2–3 tesla), which aligns the proton "spins." The scanner also produces a current that creates a varying magnetic field of approximately 60 MHz. The protons absorb the energy from the magnetic field and flip their spins. When the field is removed, the protons gradually return to their normal spin (precession). The return process produces a radio signal that can be measured by the receivers in the scanner and converted into an image. Protons in different body tissues return to their normal spins at diverse rates, so the scanner can differentiate among various types of tissues. The scanner settings can be adjusted to produce contrasts between the body tissues. Surplus magnetic fields are used to produce three-dimensional images that may be viewed from different angles. There are many forms of MRI, but diffusion MRI and functional MRI (fMRI) are two of the most commonly used forms in biomedical imaging. Diffusion MRI measures the way water molecules diffuse through body tissues. Certain disease processes—especially tumor—can hamper this diffusion, thus helping to diagnose them. In addition to structural imaging, functional MRI can also be used to visualize functional activities. Functional MRI, or fMRI, is used to measure changes in blood flow to different parts of the tissues or organ.

#### **2.3. Ultrasound waves**

This is another alternative for detecting and screening the presence of tumors and specifically breast tumors. In this testing procedure, high-frequency sound waves are transmitted to the effected tissue, and without involving radiations, the received signals are converted into images. Ultrasound cannot replace the effectiveness of mammogram or MRI. It is only used to see if the breast lump is filled with cyst or if it is solid. Ultrasound can also be used to characterize the type of tumor. They are considered a good extension of physical palpations which use touching the breasts to detect the presence of any tumors. But they are limited to penetration because of lower frequency as compared to MRI and x-ray mammograms. Ultrasound waves have frequencies above about 20 kHz [9, 10].
