**4. Manufacturing of polymeric synthetic fabrics as geotextiles**

#### **4.1. Geotextiles**

Geotextile is a planar, permeable, polymeric (synthetic or natural) textile material, which may be nonwoven, knitted, or woven, used in contact with soil/rock and/or any other geotechnical material in civil engineering applications (**Figure 2**).

There are woven geotextiles which are divided into plain weave and twill weave using staple and filament yarns. Yarn used is usually as of 1000–3000 denier. And fabric density is generally in the range of 19–21 plies per inch in the warp and weft direction, and mainly polyester and polypropylene fibers are used, but polypropylene fiber has a weak light resistance. In addition, nonwoven geotextile, in which long fibers or short fibers are randomly arranged and bonded, is manufactured by using a needle punching and thermal bonding

**Figure 2.** Photographs of geotextiles.

process in the case of short fibers and laminated by spunbonding process in the case of long fibers in a weight of about 200–800 g/m<sup>2</sup> .

In general, the constituent fibers form a disorderly entangled structure, so that they have excellent mechanical and mechanical properties, and polypropylene and polyester fibers are mainly used. Normally nonwovens are used for filter and separation functions. A nonwoven is a geotextile in the form of a manufactured sheet, web, or batt of directionally or randomly orientated fibers, filaments, or other elements, mechanically and/or thermally and/or chemically bonded. Nonwovens are used in filtration, drainage, separation, protection, and/or erosion control applications.

Fine soil particles can be captured in between the three-dimensional fiber entanglement of the nonwoven and prevent movement of these into the usually coarse "neighbor" soil. This way the buildup of a filter stable layer is possible. The geotextile filter can be dimensioned with available filter calculations [6, 7].

### **4.2. Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs)**

It is a geocomposite produced by bonding bentonite clay to a geotextile or geomembrane or filling bentonite clay between two geotextiles. The geotextile-made geotextile clay pottery often has a needle bent through the bentonite layer to increase internal shear resistance. It is effective as a barrier against liquids or gases when bentonite is hydrated. It is commonly used with geomembranes and is used as filler in landfills (**Figure 3**). GCL is also a factory-manufactured hydraulic barrier consisting of a layer of bentonite or other very-low-permeability materials supported by geotextiles and/or geomembranes, mechanically held together by needling, stitching, or chemical adhesives (**Figure 4**).

#### **4.3. Geotubes and geocontainers**

**Figure 2.** Photographs of geotextiles.

**3.3. Recycled fibers**

78 Engineered Fabrics

**4.1. Geotextiles**

widely used as synthetic polymer fibers, and polyurethane, glass, and carbon-based polymers are applied to very limited fields in order to give a special purpose and function. Demand creation of geosynthetic products using polymer materials can be increased, and new functional products are expected to be developed in parallel with the development of various additives.

Since the fiber polymer materials used in the manufacture of geosynthetic products are often used in large quantities, therefore, the cost is low. Therefore, if the performance is similar, the manufacturing cost should be low. In view of this, in the case of nonwoven geotextile, products using already recycled polyester materials are being manufactured and sold, and interest and research on recycled polymeric materials are being actively pursued in terms of environment friendliness. However, in the case of the geosynthetic products manufactured using the recycled polymeric material, the physical properties are deteriorated, and therefore,

Geotextile is a planar, permeable, polymeric (synthetic or natural) textile material, which may be nonwoven, knitted, or woven, used in contact with soil/rock and/or any other geotechnical

There are woven geotextiles which are divided into plain weave and twill weave using staple and filament yarns. Yarn used is usually as of 1000–3000 denier. And fabric density is generally in the range of 19–21 plies per inch in the warp and weft direction, and mainly polyester and polypropylene fibers are used, but polypropylene fiber has a weak light resistance. In addition, nonwoven geotextile, in which long fibers or short fibers are randomly arranged and bonded, is manufactured by using a needle punching and thermal bonding

there is a problem that it needs to be supplemented or improved in the future.

**4. Manufacturing of polymeric synthetic fabrics as geotextiles**

material in civil engineering applications (**Figure 2**).

There are many opinions on how to prepare measures to be protected against or prevent catastrophic disasters such as tsunami and Katrina which have recently occurred, but one of the obvious ways of doing this is that it is closely related to advance prevention as well as disaster recovery. To do this, the method is the use of geotextile products. Geotextile containers, which are used instead of building rigid structures such as rocks and concrete in rivers, coasts, and harbors, are used as geotextile containers that are currently being used for this purpose worldwide, and they are used to construct flexible structures, and this technique has been successfully applied [8, 9].

Also, geotextile container is classified as geobags, geotubes, and geocontainers depending on the size and manufacturing method. The geotextile container is made by mechanically or hydraulically filling the soil including dredged soil in the geotextile bag. Generally, a geobag is a small geotextile container with a capacity of 0.3–5.0 m<sup>3</sup> ; it is usually used as a sand filling material, and it is finished with a small sewing machine.

Geotubes are manufactured in permeable geotextile and are filled with sand or dredged soil by hydraulic or mechanical methods. The diameter and length of the geotube depend on site conditions and installation possibilities, usually 150–180 m, 4–5 m wide, and 1.5–2 m high.

In order to fill the upper part of the geotube with hydraulic method, the sandy soil should be closer (about 10 m) and the clayey soil as far as possible. Geotube is a massive pillowshaped structure made in a permeable geotextile style and is filled mechanically with sand or dredged soil by a hopper or clamshell bucket (**Figure 5**).

Since the first attempt of geotube applications was in Brazil in the early 1980s, geotube application technology has been used as a containment embankment for the prevention and isolation of contaminated soil from France in 1986 and has since been used for underwater embankment or coastal protection in the Netherlands and Germany. Now, geotube was widely used for construction work [10].

can be manufactured by using nonwoven geotextile inside and woven geotextile outside. These geocontainers have many advantages such as shortening the installation period and reducing the construction cost due to the use of site-useable materials and workload and

**Figure 4.** Cross-sectional sketches of currently available GCLs. (a) Adhesive-bound clay between upper and lower geotextiles, (b) Adhesive-bound clay above or below a geomembrane, (c) Needle-punched clay through upper and lower

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Geocontainer application technology was first developed in the Netherlands and was used in 1986 in Germany for the construction of the flow-inducing dikes in the Rhine River and in

The US Army Engineer Waterway Experiment Station (WES), which has recently been the centerpiece of the Army Engineer's Department and has been planned for Construction

minimizing environmental pollution during construction.

geotextiles, and (d) Stitch-bonded sketches of currently available GCLs.

1987 in the Dutch-eroded canal's dikes.

Geocontainer is constructed by preliminarily sewing the geotextiles of the proper length together and installing it in the split bottom-dump width of the floor (the two ends are sewn together so as to form slender pillow shapes). And then, fill with sand or dredged soil, and seal the suture with a suture at the site (**Figure 6**).

The capacity of the geocontainer can be increased as the barge opening width of the barge becomes larger and is usually about 100–1000 m<sup>3</sup> . When dredged clay is used, geocontainers Polymeric Synthetic Fabrics to Improve Stability of Ground Structure in Civil Engineering… http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81246 81

**Figure 4.** Cross-sectional sketches of currently available GCLs. (a) Adhesive-bound clay between upper and lower geotextiles, (b) Adhesive-bound clay above or below a geomembrane, (c) Needle-punched clay through upper and lower geotextiles, and (d) Stitch-bonded sketches of currently available GCLs.

In order to fill the upper part of the geotube with hydraulic method, the sandy soil should be closer (about 10 m) and the clayey soil as far as possible. Geotube is a massive pillowshaped structure made in a permeable geotextile style and is filled mechanically with sand or

Since the first attempt of geotube applications was in Brazil in the early 1980s, geotube application technology has been used as a containment embankment for the prevention and isolation of contaminated soil from France in 1986 and has since been used for underwater embankment or coastal protection in the Netherlands and Germany. Now, geotube was widely used

Geocontainer is constructed by preliminarily sewing the geotextiles of the proper length together and installing it in the split bottom-dump width of the floor (the two ends are sewn together so as to form slender pillow shapes). And then, fill with sand or dredged soil, and

The capacity of the geocontainer can be increased as the barge opening width of the barge

. When dredged clay is used, geocontainers

dredged soil by a hopper or clamshell bucket (**Figure 5**).

**Figure 3.** Photographs of geosynthetic clay liners.

80 Engineered Fabrics

seal the suture with a suture at the site (**Figure 6**).

becomes larger and is usually about 100–1000 m<sup>3</sup>

for construction work [10].

can be manufactured by using nonwoven geotextile inside and woven geotextile outside. These geocontainers have many advantages such as shortening the installation period and reducing the construction cost due to the use of site-useable materials and workload and minimizing environmental pollution during construction.

Geocontainer application technology was first developed in the Netherlands and was used in 1986 in Germany for the construction of the flow-inducing dikes in the Rhine River and in 1987 in the Dutch-eroded canal's dikes.

The US Army Engineer Waterway Experiment Station (WES), which has recently been the centerpiece of the Army Engineer's Department and has been planned for Construction

On the other hand, most of the synthetic polymeric materials that have been widely used are polyolefin-based and polyester-based ones. However, polyurethane, glass, and carbon-based polymers could be used to manufacture for special purpose and functions. Since the polymer materials used in the manufacture of geosynthetic products are often used in large quantities, therefore, the cost is low. Therefore, if the performance is similar, the manufacturing cost

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In view of this, products using recycled polyester materials have already been manufactured and sold, and interest and research on recycled polymer materials are being actively pursued from the viewpoint of environmental friendliness. However, in the case of the geosynthetic products manufactured using recycled polymeric materials, the physical properties of the recycled polymeric materials are deteriorated, so that they have to be supplemented or

Recently, as the demand of composite-type geosynthetics has increased, functional and special high-performance materials have been used to improve the field application of geosynthetic products and to improve the stability of geotechnical structures from earthquakes, tsunamis, etc., liquid crystal polymer (LCP), polybutylene oxide (PBO), polypropylene sulfide (PPS), and meta- and para-aramid fibers have been used to combine with fusion technology for the

"Green Geosynthetics" refers to products that have sustainable degradable geosynthetics and environmental pollution prevention and restoration functions that do not mean long-term implementation of initial performance in terms of environmental friendliness. In the case of geotextiles, "biodegradability" refers to a phenomenon in which initial performance is gradually lost over time due to decomposition by microorganisms or bacteria in the soil, which is a geotechnical structure. In terms of restoring the polluted environment, it is also a new area of

In order to manufacture "Green Geosynthetics," a resin which is biodegradable as a raw material should be used separately, and it is closely related to the reduction factor required for long-term use. Therefore, if the green geosynthetics is used as a filter, the production of a

geotextile in the form of nanofibers will help improve filtration efficiency.

**6. Development trend with geotextile-related products**

must be low.

improved in the future.

production of hybrid geosynthetics.

geotextiles that meets the issue.

**1.** Nonwoven geotextile products

High weight, over 5000 g/㎡

Composite products, etc.

Smart fusion multifunction product

Filter products for nanofiber applications

**6.1. Geotextiles**

**5.2. Environment-friendly geosynthetics**

**Figure 5.** Schematic diagram of geotube.

**Figure 6.** Photographs of geocontainer application. (a) Spreading, (b) filling soils, and (c) dumping.

Production Advancement Research (CPAR) and has been developing innovative technologies using geotextile for the construction and maintenance of seawalls, rivers, canals, harbors, breakwater, dikes, coastal protection, roads, landfills, and reclaimed land.
