**2. History of lace, lace machine development, and modern lace machines**

Originally lace was produced by hand as a highly skilled art form requiring years of experience due to its almost infinite design possibilities. Handmade lace can be traced to the fifteenth century in Italy, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands [8]. **Figure 1** shows bobbin or pillow lace as an example. Although there are many forms of openwork lace such as crochet, knitting, and tatting, bobbin lace specifically is formed by braiding.

Various types of lace producing machines exist, such as Raschel and Leavers machines, but the operation mechanisms are fundamentally different from the lace braiding machines. John Heathcoat's bobbinet machine is arguably one of the original lace machines. The lucrative manufacture of lace led to numerous patents issued during the mid-1800s and ultimately to the mass manufacture of lace [10].

**Figure 1.** Handmade bobbin lace or pillow lace [9].

Machining of holes is required for fastening and joining of ancillary components while potentially increasing reinforcement efficiency and minimizing weight. Lace machines can produce

To provide a thorough evaluation of lace braiding technology for composite material manufacture, a brief historical context of industrial lace manufacture along with details of the development of the present-day lace braiding machine is presented. The fundamental features of braided lace are detailed to form a foundation for establishing requisite engineering design fundamentals, and to evaluate the present-day lace braiding machine for immediate

We find little evidence to suggest that braided lace has been used significantly for structural composite reinforcements. Braided lace does not readily appear to be available in the formation of heavy or industrial fabrics which would imply suitability in advanced composite preforms commonly using 12k and greater carbon fiber tows. However, one manufacturer currently offers engineered lace patterns for a myriad of applications including soft composites, sporting goods, and advanced apparel [1]. Several sources describe the esoteric nature and the lack of readily available design information [2, 3]. Although, lace braiding machines have been used in medical applications and smart textiles [4]. In fact, one reference suggests that lace braiding has no application to composites. For example, The Handbook of Composite Reinforcements provides a list of braiding machines according to the structures formed and the application to composites [5]. Per Lee, the Jacquard braiding machine (a.k.a. lace braiding machine) is used to produce tubes and flat strips with complex lace patterns and does not list composites as being an application. Work evaluating the Jacquard mechanism used in commercially available machines and proposed improvements in the control scheme are presented by Yang [6]. Many articles exist on various details of pillow lace formation techniques, a handful of short articles are dedicated to certain manufacturing aspects of machine lace (mostly trade publications), and very little can be found outside of the patent literature regarding the mechanics of the machines. However, a comprehensive text on the history and development of various lace machines by

Earnshaw is recommended to the reader for additional study of the broader topic [7].

Originally lace was produced by hand as a highly skilled art form requiring years of experience due to its almost infinite design possibilities. Handmade lace can be traced to the fifteenth century in Italy, Spain, Germany, and the Netherlands [8]. **Figure 1** shows bobbin or pillow lace as an example. Although there are many forms of openwork lace such as crochet, knitting,

Various types of lace producing machines exist, such as Raschel and Leavers machines, but the operation mechanisms are fundamentally different from the lace braiding machines. John Heathcoat's bobbinet machine is arguably one of the original lace machines. The lucrative manufacture of lace led to numerous patents issued during the mid-1800s and ultimately to

**2. History of lace, lace machine development, and modern lace** 

and tatting, bobbin lace specifically is formed by braiding.

the mass manufacture of lace [10].

**machines**

either flat or seamless cylindrical structures.

60 Engineered Fabrics

suitability to produce structural composite reinforcements.

The dexterous movements performed in bobbin or pillow lace formation have many similarities with the mechanical movements of the lace braiding machine. The fundamental movements are therefore similar. This is not surprising as the lace braiding machines of the nineteenth century were expressly designed to mimic the motion of bobbin lace makers' hands. One of the first patents issued for a bobbin lace braiding machine was issued in 1910 to Gustav Krenzler of Barmen, Germany [11]. Earlier in the same year, a patent was issued to Emil Krenzler for a single-thread lace-bobbin machine [12]. Lace braiding machines have several names including, Barmen, Torchon, and Jacquard lace braiding machines. These machines produce tubular fabrics which are then separated into two flat fabrics of the same design for efficiency. Small monofilament yarns are used to join the two "flat" fabrics which are subsequently removed.
