**3. Subtropical estuary "Apalachicola Bay" characteristics and challenges**

Apalachicola Bay is a subtropical, barrier island estuary located along the northeast Gulf of Mexico in northwest Florida. The bay, a National Estuarine Research Reserve (ANERR), is a river-dominated system [33, 34] with a highly variable salinity regime. Its main source of freshwater, the Apalachicola River, the largest river in Florida with the highest riverine discharge rate [35, 36] is formed at the confluence of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers, both with

produced 90% of the oysters harvested in the state of Florida, and 10% of the nation's oysters and are known for their high quality and excellent taste. The industry generated \$10–\$14 million in revenue annually, and in Franklin County, oysters made up nearly one-third the value of commercial marine landings. **Figure 8** shows the interpreted surficial geology with

Are Aquaculture Practices Sustaining Our Goal to Restore Oysters (*Crassostrea virginica*)?

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78989

45

The river/bay ecosystems are in highly pristine areas and have not been adversely impacted by coastal development. The major stressor on the system, both the tidal and non-tidal reaches of the river, has been low river stage due mainly to three factors: dam installation, channel widening, and drought and natural fluctuations [36]. Over the recent past freshwater inflow to Apalachicola Bay has been critically diminished by the cumulative impacts of the aforementioned stressors, weather-related events and a decades-long water rights battle between Florida, Alabama, and Georgia (i.e. 'Tri-State River War'). Normal late-autumn drought conditions for the ACF watershed were exacerbated by two La Niña climate events in 2002 and 2007, during which time the southeast United States experienced warmer and drier than normal conditions. Drought-stricken Georgia increased its usage of the Apalachicola River's headwaters to support water demands from Atlanta's growing population and for crop irrigation. This resulted in a 17% reduction in water flow to the Apalachicola Bay. Other years experiencing unusually low river flow into the bay include 2000, 2008, 2011 and 2012 (the lowest on record); data show that the six lowest river flow years occurred between the years 2000–2012 [38]. The salinity in Apalachicola

**Figure 8.** Apalachicola Bay. Surficial geology shows the interpreted surficial geology with the locations of oyster bars superimposed on the sun-illuminated bathymetry ([37], U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 2006-1381; https://

cmgds.marine.usgs.gov/publications/of2006-1381/html/maps.htm).

the locations of oysters in Apalachicola Bay, Florida.

**Figure 7.** Proposed shellfish aquaculture development areas in the Inland Bays. ([32]; http://www.dnrec.delaware.gov/ fw/fisheries/pages/shellfishaquaculture.aspx).

headwaters in Georgia. The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) tri-river system drains 19,600 mi2 of uplands and floodplains in Alabama, Georgia and Florida. The bay's hydrology consists of winter/spring flooding and summer/fall drought. The spring floods are essential to the health of the bay, which relies on Apalachicola River for freshwater and for the abundant nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon – the delivers to the productive bay.

Species diversity is high in Apalachicola Bay, which has one of the most diverse ecosystems in the southeastern United States. Seafood production is a major industry in Franklin County, where the bay is located and where shellfish harvesting, especially of the Eastern oyster, *Crassostrea virginica,* contributed significantly to the local economy. The bay's oyster bars produced 90% of the oysters harvested in the state of Florida, and 10% of the nation's oysters and are known for their high quality and excellent taste. The industry generated \$10–\$14 million in revenue annually, and in Franklin County, oysters made up nearly one-third the value of commercial marine landings. **Figure 8** shows the interpreted surficial geology with the locations of oysters in Apalachicola Bay, Florida.

The river/bay ecosystems are in highly pristine areas and have not been adversely impacted by coastal development. The major stressor on the system, both the tidal and non-tidal reaches of the river, has been low river stage due mainly to three factors: dam installation, channel widening, and drought and natural fluctuations [36]. Over the recent past freshwater inflow to Apalachicola Bay has been critically diminished by the cumulative impacts of the aforementioned stressors, weather-related events and a decades-long water rights battle between Florida, Alabama, and Georgia (i.e. 'Tri-State River War'). Normal late-autumn drought conditions for the ACF watershed were exacerbated by two La Niña climate events in 2002 and 2007, during which time the southeast United States experienced warmer and drier than normal conditions. Drought-stricken Georgia increased its usage of the Apalachicola River's headwaters to support water demands from Atlanta's growing population and for crop irrigation. This resulted in a 17% reduction in water flow to the Apalachicola Bay. Other years experiencing unusually low river flow into the bay include 2000, 2008, 2011 and 2012 (the lowest on record); data show that the six lowest river flow years occurred between the years 2000–2012 [38]. The salinity in Apalachicola

**Figure 7.** Proposed shellfish aquaculture development areas in the Inland Bays. ([32]; http://www.dnrec.delaware.gov/

headwaters in Georgia. The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) tri-river system drains

consists of winter/spring flooding and summer/fall drought. The spring floods are essential to the health of the bay, which relies on Apalachicola River for freshwater and for the abundant nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon – the delivers to the productive bay.

Species diversity is high in Apalachicola Bay, which has one of the most diverse ecosystems in the southeastern United States. Seafood production is a major industry in Franklin County, where the bay is located and where shellfish harvesting, especially of the Eastern oyster, *Crassostrea virginica,* contributed significantly to the local economy. The bay's oyster bars

of uplands and floodplains in Alabama, Georgia and Florida. The bay's hydrology

fw/fisheries/pages/shellfishaquaculture.aspx).

44 Aquaculture - Plants and Invertebrates

19,600 mi2

**Figure 8.** Apalachicola Bay. Surficial geology shows the interpreted surficial geology with the locations of oyster bars superimposed on the sun-illuminated bathymetry ([37], U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 2006-1381; https:// cmgds.marine.usgs.gov/publications/of2006-1381/html/maps.htm).

Bay was exceptionally high in 2012 [39]. In January 2018, the Supreme Court of the United States heard arguments concerning the Alabama-Georgia-Florida water war. A ruling has not been issued at this time. Florida is seeking a water-sharing pact such that Georgia's usage of the ACF headwaters does not create adverse downstream effects for Apalachicola Bay fisheries.

In addition to decreased freshwater inflow, climate change models predict a north Florida sea level rise of up to 15 inches by the end of the century. Scientists speculate that this vertical rise may push the shoreline 70–250 feet inland in low-lying coastal areas (*see* **Figure 8**). According to a one report, this would submerge 61% of salt marshes and three quarters of the tidal fresh water marshes [40].

In August 2013, NOAA declared the Apalachicola Bay oyster fishery a disaster, caused by a long and excessive drought during the 2012–2013 season. Due to those events, Florida west coast oyster landings dropped 60% and revenue declined 44% [85]. The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill did not impact Apalachicola Bay oysters significantly. Oysters tested by the University of Florida [39] were below instrumental detection for oil spill contaminants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). According to research in the same report, a high percentage of bay oyster shells are parasitized by boring clams, sponges, polychaete worms or other organisms. In addition to a decrease in shellfish growth and productivity, shell deformity also detracts from shell integrity and may therefore affect the economic value of product. Dermo disease is present in Apalachicola Bay oysters, but apparently, its severity is less than in other bays along the East Coast, such as the Chesapeake Bay [41]. The UFL researchers report that more than 90% of tested oysters are positive for the parasite.

aquaculture lease in Alligator Harbor, (21 new leases) Franklin, County, and Ochlockonee Bay (72 new leases), between Wakulla and Franklin counties. Each lease is 1.5 acres (The Apalachicola and Carrabelle Times 2018). Picture shows oysters in tongs in Apalachicola Bay

Are Aquaculture Practices Sustaining Our Goal to Restore Oysters (*Crassostrea virginica*)?

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78989

47

**Figure 10.** A state worker showing FAMU students oysters in tongs in Apalachicola Bay. *Picture by Stacy Smith.*

As stated by Rossi-Snook et al. [24] "an integral aspect of oyster gardening programs that cannot go unmentioned is the development of a sense of environmental stewardship among community members. In these programs, professional scientists and volunteers are working together to conserve both an ecosystem and a culture; by reintegrating oysters back into the bays, natural recruitment and proliferation is possible, eventually allowing for the safe and ecologically-sound harvest of oysters and other ecologically important macrofauna to rede-

Ecosystem engineers, as described in many environmental books and articles, are organisms that can dramatically change the environment and essentially create ecosystems. Jones et al. [42] discussed differences between allogenic and autogenic ecosystem engineers. He stated oysters fall in to both categories: allogenic because they "change the environment by transforming living or non-living materials from one physical state to another, via mechanical or other means," and autogenic because they "change the environment via their own physical structures (i.e. living and dead tissue) as they grow and become larger, their tissues create

Although, *Crassostrea virginica* can tolerate a wide range of salinity, temperature, turbidity, and oxygen levels, Kennedy [6] discussed how water depth and salinity affect oyster populations and their associated fauna. Oysters generally occur in areas with the annual temperature range between −2 to 36°C except for the oysters in Gulf of Mexico which can survive intertidal temperatures between 44 and 49.5°C for over 3 hours. Larger established populations are found at salinities ranging from 5 to 40 ppt. Nevertheless, adult oysters have the ability to survive even in fresh water for short time durations [6]. When oysters are located in areas of

**4. Where shared challenges meet shared solutions?**

and sediment (*see* **Figure 10**).

velop within the community."

habitat for other organisms to live in."

In an attempt to save a struggling industry, Florida's leaders have approved oyster and clam aquaculture leases in Wakulla County and in Franklin County (*see picture in* **Figure 9**). In April 2018, Florida's governor and his cabinet are looking to approve expanding current

**Figure 9.** Apalachicola Bay relies on freshwater input from the Apalachicola River to maintain ecosystem health and to support a productive shellfish fishery. *Map from State of Florida, updated by Stacy Smith.*

Are Aquaculture Practices Sustaining Our Goal to Restore Oysters (*Crassostrea virginica*)? http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78989 47

**Figure 10.** A state worker showing FAMU students oysters in tongs in Apalachicola Bay. *Picture by Stacy Smith.*

aquaculture lease in Alligator Harbor, (21 new leases) Franklin, County, and Ochlockonee Bay (72 new leases), between Wakulla and Franklin counties. Each lease is 1.5 acres (The Apalachicola and Carrabelle Times 2018). Picture shows oysters in tongs in Apalachicola Bay and sediment (*see* **Figure 10**).
