1. Background information

Zea mays, popularly known as maize or corn, and, sometimes called Indian corn or mealies [1]; is one of the important Nigeria's household grains that contributes to food security. Food security is of high importance on the Nigeria's national agenda, taken into account the increasing demand for food for its increasing population [1, 2]. The importance of corn in Nigeria can be underlined in two ways: (a) its economic value to the national treasury, and, (b) the large number of smallholder-farmers that cultivate the crop at subsistence level [3]. According to [2], Nigeria was the tenth largest producer of maize in the world, and the largest maize producer in Africa. It is estimated that 70% of farmers are smallholders, and this number accounts for 90% of the total farm outputs [4]. Maize crop started as a subsistence crop in Nigeria and has gradually risen to a commercial crop on which many agrobased industries depend on, as raw materials [3]. In 2016, maize production for Nigeria was 10.4 million tonnes. Though Nigeria maize production fluctuated substantially in recent years, its yield was projected to increase to a maximum of 10.4 million tonnes in 2016 [1].

on climatic variables [13, 14]. Therefore, concerns have been widely expressed, over the years by agronomists, research institutions, governmental agencies at both local and international fora, on the need to tackle the impacts of climate variability on maize yield [16, 26–28]. Climatic factors and are among environmental conditions that affect the productivity of many varieties of maize crops [29, 30]. Worse -still, many smallholder farmers are resource constrained, therefore, their demands for certain improved seeds vary as much as agroclimatic conditions do [24, 31, 32]. However, the formal seed sector has made some success in raising adoption of various improved maize varieties such as stress-tolerant varieties,

GIS-Based Assessment of Smallholder Farmers' Perception of Climate Change Impacts and Their…

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2. Related past research on climate variability and adaptation to climate

This above expressed scenarios have motivated several past research works on climate variability on maize production over the past decade [12, 13, 33, 34]. Specifically, [33] identified climate variability as a global environmental challenge that is likely to have a serious effect on natural and human systems, economies and infrastructures. However, the nature of these biophysical effects and the human responses to these changes are complex and uncertain as the changes keep manifesting in different forms on a yearly basis. Climate change has already exhibited strong negative impacts on food security in many African countries such as: Eritrea [35]; Ethiopia [36]; Kenya [12, 37]; South Africa [38]; Nigeria [39];

Consequently, past studies have indicated substantial diversity in the awareness level of Nigerian maize farmers in regard to climate change adaption techniques [3, 10]. Adaptation to climate variability is defined as an adjustment in natural or human systems to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm and exploit beneficial opportunities [40, 41]. Climate change adaptation depends on: demand for improved seeds for maize, category of techniques adopted to curtail climate variability, time of planting, among others [4]. Planting time is an essential component of maize crop management, especially in the South-eastern part of Nigeria [8]. Yields decline with lateness of planting after an optimum time, usually the start of the rains [17]. Response of maize varieties to climate variability is dependent upon planting time. Optimum planting in each of the major agro-ecological zones of Nigeria falls within the following ranges [42]: Forest zone—Mid April—second week in May; forest—Savannah transition third week in April—third week in May; South Guinea Savannah comes up during the last week in April to the third week in May. These planting dates coincide with the period that flooding occurs with the riverine communities of the study area. Re-occurring flood is an impact of climate that strongly manifests in South-eastern Nigeria; thereby decreasing maize production

Furthermore, some other previous long-term climate change studies have established a nexus between the effects of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, and the mean global temperature [13, 44]. In addition, the studies by [43, 45] opined that, global warming has

early and extra-early varieties, or N2-efficient varieties [29].

change by smallholder maize farmers

etcetera.

in flood prone zones [43].

As a Nigerian staple food, corn is being utilized in making household diets, for industrial processing as a raw material, and for animal feed formulation [5]. Processed maize product: tuwo—masara (Hausa), fufu (Yoruba), nri-oka (Igbo), uwe-nyumbakpa (Igede) or semo (common English branded name), is one of the food products that can be obtained from maize utilization in Southeast, Nigeria [6]. It is essentially a food gel or dumpling which is stiff, has a yield value and can be molded into shapes. Other food products that are obtained from maize grain include the following Nigerian native names: ogi, eko or agidi, egbo, elekute, aadun, abari and guguru (i.e. popcorn) [7]. This important cereal crop is widely cultivated within the rainforest and the derived Savannah zones of Nigeria [4, 8]. Improved varieties have been developed for high yield production in the country [9]. About 60% of maize in Nigeria is from high rain-forest zones [10]; and many varieties of maize were developed and available for cultivation in Nigeria [11]. However, maize production is greatly limited by the impacts of climate change [12].

Climate change is the most serious contemporary environmental threat facing humankind [13–16]; because, many aspects of planet Earth are changing mainly due to anthropogenic (human-induced) activities. The foregoing scenario thereby raises climate change issues for sustainable maize production [2, 12, 17–19] in countries that are susceptible to climate change impacts. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) in 2007 defined climate change as: "a change in the state of the climate which can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It further refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity" [20]. In addition, IPCC expressed that, Africa seems to be the most vulnerable continent to future climate change impacts [21–23]. Justly, climate change is already a reality for millions of Africa's smallholder farmers, especially, maize producers [24, 25]. Despite that, maize plays fundamental roles to national food security in Africa [12]; its production is thus, highly dependent on climatic variables [13, 14]. Therefore, concerns have been widely expressed, over the years by agronomists, research institutions, governmental agencies at both local and international fora, on the need to tackle the impacts of climate variability on maize yield [16, 26–28]. Climatic factors and are among environmental conditions that affect the productivity of many varieties of maize crops [29, 30]. Worse -still, many smallholder farmers are resource constrained, therefore, their demands for certain improved seeds vary as much as agroclimatic conditions do [24, 31, 32]. However, the formal seed sector has made some success in raising adoption of various improved maize varieties such as stress-tolerant varieties, early and extra-early varieties, or N2-efficient varieties [29].

1. Background information

116 Corn - Production and Human Health in Changing Climate

2016 [1].

climate change [12].

Zea mays, popularly known as maize or corn, and, sometimes called Indian corn or mealies [1]; is one of the important Nigeria's household grains that contributes to food security. Food security is of high importance on the Nigeria's national agenda, taken into account the increasing demand for food for its increasing population [1, 2]. The importance of corn in Nigeria can be underlined in two ways: (a) its economic value to the national treasury, and, (b) the large number of smallholder-farmers that cultivate the crop at subsistence level [3]. According to [2], Nigeria was the tenth largest producer of maize in the world, and the largest maize producer in Africa. It is estimated that 70% of farmers are smallholders, and this number accounts for 90% of the total farm outputs [4]. Maize crop started as a subsistence crop in Nigeria and has gradually risen to a commercial crop on which many agrobased industries depend on, as raw materials [3]. In 2016, maize production for Nigeria was 10.4 million tonnes. Though Nigeria maize production fluctuated substantially in recent years, its yield was projected to increase to a maximum of 10.4 million tonnes in

As a Nigerian staple food, corn is being utilized in making household diets, for industrial processing as a raw material, and for animal feed formulation [5]. Processed maize product: tuwo—masara (Hausa), fufu (Yoruba), nri-oka (Igbo), uwe-nyumbakpa (Igede) or semo (common English branded name), is one of the food products that can be obtained from maize utilization in Southeast, Nigeria [6]. It is essentially a food gel or dumpling which is stiff, has a yield value and can be molded into shapes. Other food products that are obtained from maize grain include the following Nigerian native names: ogi, eko or agidi, egbo, elekute, aadun, abari and guguru (i.e. popcorn) [7]. This important cereal crop is widely cultivated within the rainforest and the derived Savannah zones of Nigeria [4, 8]. Improved varieties have been developed for high yield production in the country [9]. About 60% of maize in Nigeria is from high rain-forest zones [10]; and many varieties of maize were developed and available for cultivation in Nigeria [11]. However, maize production is greatly limited by the impacts of

Climate change is the most serious contemporary environmental threat facing humankind [13–16]; because, many aspects of planet Earth are changing mainly due to anthropogenic (human-induced) activities. The foregoing scenario thereby raises climate change issues for sustainable maize production [2, 12, 17–19] in countries that are susceptible to climate change impacts. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) in 2007 defined climate change as: "a change in the state of the climate which can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It further refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity" [20]. In addition, IPCC expressed that, Africa seems to be the most vulnerable continent to future climate change impacts [21–23]. Justly, climate change is already a reality for millions of Africa's smallholder farmers, especially, maize producers [24, 25]. Despite that, maize plays fundamental roles to national food security in Africa [12]; its production is thus, highly dependent
