2. Methodology

Extensive literature search was carried out to identify differences between normal and abnormal erythrocytes of various species of animals including the ones in the wild. Information on beneficial and toxic effects of drugs, chemical toxicants, toxins, plant extracts, chemicals, and diseased conditions were searched on erythrocyte shape, size, and volume for various species of animals including human. Some developed formulas were modified for determination of anemic, polycythemic, hydrated, and dehydrated erythrocytes. Physiological and pathological features of the erythrocytes were also highlighted. Preclinical and clinical values of the changes in erythrocytes in relation to blood diseases caused by various agents were critically analyzed. Effects of toxic and therapeutic agents on metabolic, cancer, infectious, inheritable, and noninheritable diseases of erythrocytes, such as sickle cell anemia, malaria, and hereditary spherocytosis, among others, were elucidated.

#### 3. Results

The values of erythrocytes, packed cell volume plasma volume, hemoglobin concentration, body weight, and salient features of erythrocytes are presented in Table 1, Figures 1–23 [26, 27].

#### 3.1 Morphometry of erythrocytes

Erythrocytes have larger (a) and minor (b) axes, volume (v), and surface area. The measurement is in micrometer (μmÞ:

$$a = \frac{1}{2}; b = \frac{1}{2}.$$

$$\text{Surface area} = 2a^2 \left( \mathbf{1} + \frac{c}{ac} \text{sinc}^{-1} e \right); \text{where } e^{-1} = \mathbf{1} \frac{-a^2}{c^2} \tag{1}$$

$$\text{Volume} = 4/\_3 a^2 \times b \tag{2}$$

Breed

87

 English

Scientific name

 Weight

Erythrocytes

Hematocrit

 Hemoglobin

Plasma volume

Total blood

Comment(s)

 References

> volume (ml)

> (ml)

363.8

575.2

High blood

[13]

volume

concentration

 (g/dl)

(106

/μl)

(kg)

name

Canis

Mus Meleagris

Mus Rattus Caprine

Labeo Struthio

Streptopelia

 Laughing

Streptopelia

0.1

 3.76

0.01

 42.60

0.86

 14.04

0.25

4.6

8.0

Higher

[21]

hematocrit

senegalensis

dove

Naja

Bos Homo

Homo

Homo

Key: Hemoglobin = 1/3 of hematocrit.

Table 1. Erythrocytes,

 packed cell volume, and hemoglobin

concentration

 in various species of animals.

 Woman

Homo sapiens

70

3.5–5.0

33–43

12.0–15.0

3192.2–3752.1

5600

Higher plasma

[25]

volume

 Man

Homo sapiens

70

4.5–5.9

39–49

13.6–17.2

2856.1–3416.1

 5600

Lower plasma

[25]

volume

 Child

Homo sapiens

23.25

 0.36–0.28

 24.33–19.09

Cow

Bos indicus

450

 6.7

 28.50

2.05

7.55

3.5 7.81–4.59

25,740 1407.5-1505

1860

 Lower parameters

 [24]

36,000

 Lower hematocrit

 [23]

 0.65

Indian

Naja naja

9.3

 0.58

0.04

 30.11

1.93

7.6

0.75

520

744

Lower

[22]

hemoglobin

cobra

 Ostrich

Struthio camelus

111

 151.58

0.30

 36.47

3.78

 11.37

0.70

5641.7

8880

Very high

[20]

erythrocytes

Fish

Labeo rohita

1.48

 1.3

0.03

 24.30

3.30

8.1

1.10

89.6

118.4

 Lower hematocrit

 [19]

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

 Goat

Capra hircus

13

 11.5

0.4

 29.4

0.8

9.8

0.3

734.2

1040

Higher

[18]

erythrocytes

Rat

Rattus norvegicus

0.16

 7.21

0.14

 38.17

0.87

 13.83

0.06

7.9

12.8

 High erythrocytes

 [17]

Mouse

Mus musculus

0.021

 1.09

 0.04

 41.00

 2.08

 13.67

0.69

1.0

1.7

High hematocrit

 [16]

 Turkey

Meleagris

2.0

 1.99–2.26

 33.2

 3.56

 11.07

1.19

106.9

160

High plasma

[15]

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

volume

gallopavo

Mouse

Mus musculus

0.025

 9.60

 1.02

 36.00

 2.58

 11.90

 0.86

1.28

2.0

High plasma

[14]

volume

Dog

Canis familiaris

7.19

 6.12

 0.25

 36.75

 1.49

 12.25

 0.49

Hematological variances can occur between animals of different species and the same species. Erythrocytes of Piaractus mesopotamicus (2.57 � 0.5 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> /μl) was higher than that of Brycon orbignyanus (2.56 � 0.5 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> /μl), Oreochromis niloticus (1.70 � 0.4 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> /μl), and Rhamdia quelen (2.11 � 0.6 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> /μl), respectively. Larger axes of R. quelen (12.1 � 0.3 μm), O. niloticus (13.2 � 0.6 μm), B. orbignyanus (14.4 � 0.3 μm), and P. mesopotamicus (15.0 � 0.4 μm), as compared to their minor axes, 9.3 � 0.3, 9.3 � 0.4, 8.7 � 0:2, and 9:8 � 0:2 μm, respectively, as well as the surface area and volume of R. quelen (317.0 � 36.4 <sup>μ</sup>m<sup>2</sup> ; 545.2 � 95.0 <sup>μ</sup>m3), O. niloticus (343.1 � 43.4 <sup>μ</sup>m2; 612.6 � 119.4 <sup>μ</sup>m3), B. orbignyanus (337.3 � 30.771 <sup>μ</sup>m2; 585.4 � 84.0 <sup>μ</sup>m3), and P. mesopotamicus (400.6 � 36.5 <sup>μ</sup>m2; 765.8 � 108.7 <sup>μ</sup>m3), respectively, show that erythrocyte shape, area, and volume vary even in the same species of animals [28].


#### Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

Table 1. Erythrocytes,packed

 cell volume, and hemoglobin

concentration

 in various species of animals.

erythrocytes (4.2–6.2 � 1012/L), hemoglobin (100 g/100 mL), and hematocrit (38–54%) of the total blood volume are the standards for human species [12]. Variation in species, age, environmental factors, management system, and patholog-

ical conditions could affect the size, shape, area, and volume of erythrocytes.

Extensive literature search was carried out to identify differences between normal and abnormal erythrocytes of various species of animals including the ones in the wild. Information on beneficial and toxic effects of drugs, chemical toxicants, toxins, plant extracts, chemicals, and diseased conditions were searched on erythrocyte shape, size, and volume for various species of animals including human. Some developed formulas were modified for determination of anemic, polycythemic, hydrated, and dehydrated erythrocytes. Physiological and pathological features of the erythrocytes were also highlighted. Preclinical and clinical values of the changes in erythrocytes in relation to blood diseases caused by various agents were critically analyzed. Effects of toxic and therapeutic agents on metabolic, cancer, infectious, inheritable, and noninheritable diseases of erythrocytes, such as sickle cell anemia, malaria, and hereditary spherocytosis, among others, were

The values of erythrocytes, packed cell volume plasma volume, hemoglobin concentration, body weight, and salient features of erythrocytes are presented in

Erythrocytes have larger (a) and minor (b) axes, volume (v), and surface area.

sine�<sup>1</sup> e

Hematological variances can occur between animals of different species and the

; where e

Volume <sup>¼</sup> <sup>4</sup>=<sup>3</sup> <sup>a</sup><sup>2</sup> � <sup>b</sup> (2)

�<sup>1</sup> <sup>¼</sup> <sup>1</sup>

�a<sup>2</sup>

/μl), Oreochromis niloticus

; 545.2 � 95.0 <sup>μ</sup>m3),

/μl), respectively.

<sup>c</sup><sup>2</sup> (1)

/μl) was

<sup>a</sup> <sup>¼</sup> <sup>1</sup> 2 ; b <sup>¼</sup> <sup>1</sup> 2 :

same species. Erythrocytes of Piaractus mesopotamicus (2.57 � 0.5 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup>

/μl), and Rhamdia quelen (2.11 � 0.6 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup>

Larger axes of R. quelen (12.1 � 0.3 μm), O. niloticus (13.2 � 0.6 μm), B. orbignyanus (14.4 � 0.3 μm), and P. mesopotamicus (15.0 � 0.4 μm), as compared to their minor axes, 9.3 � 0.3, 9.3 � 0.4, 8.7 � 0:2, and 9:8 � 0:2 μm, respectively, as well as

O. niloticus (343.1 � 43.4 <sup>μ</sup>m2; 612.6 � 119.4 <sup>μ</sup>m3), B. orbignyanus (337.3 � 30.771 <sup>μ</sup>m2; 585.4 � 84.0 <sup>μ</sup>m3), and P. mesopotamicus (400.6 � 36.5 <sup>μ</sup>m2; 765.8 � 108.7 <sup>μ</sup>m3), respectively, show that erythrocyte shape, area, and volume vary even in the same

c ac

2. Methodology

Erythrocyte

elucidated.

3. Results

(1.70 � 0.4 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup>

species of animals [28].

86

Table 1, Figures 1–23 [26, 27].

3.1 Morphometry of erythrocytes

The measurement is in micrometer (μmÞ:

Surface area <sup>¼</sup> <sup>2</sup>a<sup>2</sup> <sup>1</sup> <sup>þ</sup>

higher than that of Brycon orbignyanus (2.56 � 0.5 � <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup>

the surface area and volume of R. quelen (317.0 � 36.4 <sup>μ</sup>m<sup>2</sup>

#### Figure 1.

Photomicrographs of erythrocytes of some amphibian and reptile species. (A) O. vittatus, (B) P. caralitanus, (C) P. caucasicus, (D) E. orbicularis, (E) T. graeca, (F) O. elegans, (G) M. brevirostris, (H) A. danfordi, (I) L. trilineata, (J) L. macrorhynchus, (K) H. ravergieri, (L) M. xanthina.

## 4. Discussion

#### 4.1 Erythrocytes in various species of animals

Erythrocytes in various species of animals vary both in quality and quantity. For example, lactating Holstein breed of cow had hematocrit of 28.50 2.05% and hemoglobin of 7.55 3.5 g/dl on the first lactation and hematocrit (30.02 2.05%) and hemoglobin (12.5 2.1 g/dl) on the sixth lactation, respectively. Hence frequency of lactations changes erythrocytes in dairy cow. Albumin (2.92 0.17 g/dl) on the first lactation increased to 3.69 0.08 g/dl on the sixth lactation, respectively [23]. Hence increased erythrocytes may connote increased albumin. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) could weigh between 70 and 150 kg. The erythrocytes (151.58

Photomicrographs of leukocytes and thrombocytes in some amphibian and reptile species. (A) small lymphocyte

(L. trilineata), (B) large lymphocyte (Z. hohenackeri), (C) monocyte and heterophil (O. elegans), (D) monocyte (P. najadum), (E) heterophil (N. strauchi), (F) heterophil (T. hermanni), (G) eosinophil (P. najadum), (H) eosinophil (P. caralitanus), (I) basophil (A. cappadocica), (J) basophil (S. diadema),

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

(K) a group of thrombocytes (O. elegans), (L) a group of thrombocytes (P. najadum).

), hemoglobin (11.37 0.70 g/dl), and hematocrit (36.47 3.78%)

0.30 <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup>

89

Figure 2.

/mm<sup>3</sup>

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

#### Figure 2.

Photomicrographs of leukocytes and thrombocytes in some amphibian and reptile species. (A) small lymphocyte (L. trilineata), (B) large lymphocyte (Z. hohenackeri), (C) monocyte and heterophil (O. elegans), (D) monocyte (P. najadum), (E) heterophil (N. strauchi), (F) heterophil (T. hermanni), (G) eosinophil (P. najadum), (H) eosinophil (P. caralitanus), (I) basophil (A. cappadocica), (J) basophil (S. diadema), (K) a group of thrombocytes (O. elegans), (L) a group of thrombocytes (P. najadum).

and hemoglobin (12.5 2.1 g/dl) on the sixth lactation, respectively. Hence frequency of lactations changes erythrocytes in dairy cow. Albumin (2.92 0.17 g/dl) on the first lactation increased to 3.69 0.08 g/dl on the sixth lactation, respectively [23]. Hence increased erythrocytes may connote increased albumin. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) could weigh between 70 and 150 kg. The erythrocytes (151.58 0.30 <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> /mm<sup>3</sup> ), hemoglobin (11.37 0.70 g/dl), and hematocrit (36.47 3.78%)

4. Discussion

Figure 1.

Erythrocyte

88

4.1 Erythrocytes in various species of animals

(I) L. trilineata, (J) L. macrorhynchus, (K) H. ravergieri, (L) M. xanthina.

Erythrocytes in various species of animals vary both in quality and quantity. For

example, lactating Holstein breed of cow had hematocrit of 28.50 2.05% and hemoglobin of 7.55 3.5 g/dl on the first lactation and hematocrit (30.02 2.05%)

Photomicrographs of erythrocytes of some amphibian and reptile species. (A) O. vittatus, (B) P. caralitanus, (C) P. caucasicus, (D) E. orbicularis, (E) T. graeca, (F) O. elegans, (G) M. brevirostris, (H) A. danfordi,

#### Figure 3.

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy green iguana (Iguana iguana). E, green eosinophil; H, bilobed heterophil; L, lymphocyte; M, monocyte; RBC.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

lymphocytes.

91

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy green iguana (Iguana iguana). Erythrocytes contain variably sized,

Peripheral blood from a Chinese dragon (Physignathus cocincinus) with multiple subcutaneous abscesses and heterophilia. Heterophils (H) are mildly toxic (degranulation and cytoplasmic basophilia). Erythrocytes are mature and contain small, pale basophilic inclusions consistent with degenerate organelles. B, basophil; L, small

pale rectangular to square cytoplasmic inclusions of unknown origin. H, bilobed heterophils.

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

#### Figure 4.

Peripheral blood from a green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) with anemia (PCV 5–12%) and evidence of erythroid regeneration. Mature erythrocytes (RBC) with mild basophilic stippling (arrows). Polychromatophil undergoing mitosis (arrowhead). H, heterophil; M, mitotic figures in erythroid cell line; Mon, reactive monocyte; P, polychromatophils; R, rubriblast; T, thrombocytes.

of ostrich chick were higher than erythrocytes (131.83 0.19 106 /mm<sup>3</sup> ), hemoglobin (12.01 1.51 g/dl), and hematocrit (40.15 2.44%) of grower ostrich. Total protein was higher (4.32 0.29 g/dl) in ostrich chick than that of young ostrich (3.63 0.54 g/dl), respectively [20], signifying that total protein may be correlated with erythrocytes. Hematocrit of Kano brown buck (55.8 1.12%) is higher than that of Kano brown doe (31.0 0.73%), Borno white buck (34.00 1.2%), Kano brown doe (8.80 0.44%), Sokoto red doe (8.2 0.34%), and Sokoto red buck

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

#### Figure 5.

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy green iguana (Iguana iguana). Erythrocytes contain variably sized, pale rectangular to square cytoplasmic inclusions of unknown origin. H, bilobed heterophils.

#### Figure 6.

of ostrich chick were higher than erythrocytes (131.83 0.19 106

monocyte; P, polychromatophils; R, rubriblast; T, thrombocytes.

Figure 3.

Erythrocyte

Figure 4.

90

heterophil; L, lymphocyte; M, monocyte; RBC.

globin (12.01 1.51 g/dl), and hematocrit (40.15 2.44%) of grower ostrich. Total protein was higher (4.32 0.29 g/dl) in ostrich chick than that of young ostrich (3.63 0.54 g/dl), respectively [20], signifying that total protein may be correlated with erythrocytes. Hematocrit of Kano brown buck (55.8 1.12%) is higher than that of Kano brown doe (31.0 0.73%), Borno white buck (34.00 1.2%), Kano brown doe (8.80 0.44%), Sokoto red doe (8.2 0.34%), and Sokoto red buck

Peripheral blood from a green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) with anemia (PCV 5–12%) and evidence of erythroid regeneration. Mature erythrocytes (RBC) with mild basophilic stippling (arrows). Polychromatophil undergoing mitosis (arrowhead). H, heterophil; M, mitotic figures in erythroid cell line; Mon, reactive

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy green iguana (Iguana iguana). E, green eosinophil; H, bilobed

/mm<sup>3</sup>

), hemo-

Peripheral blood from a Chinese dragon (Physignathus cocincinus) with multiple subcutaneous abscesses and heterophilia. Heterophils (H) are mildly toxic (degranulation and cytoplasmic basophilia). Erythrocytes are mature and contain small, pale basophilic inclusions consistent with degenerate organelles. B, basophil; L, small lymphocytes.

#### Figure 7.

Peripheral blood from (left) an American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) and (right) a spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus). Heterophils (H) are severely toxic, with degranulation, indistinct cytoplasmic vacuolation, and abnormal granules. The caiman heterophils also have increased cytoplasmic basophilia and immature nuclei.

#### Figure 8.

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy flowerback box turtle (Cuora galbinifrons). A mature eosinophil (E) and an immature eosinophil (Eimmature). A few of the mature erythrocytes contain small, basophilic inclusions consistent with degenerate organelles (arrowheads). P, polychromatophils.

(8.00 0.29%), respectively. Erythrocytes of Sokoto red doe kid (1.96 0.5 10<sup>6</sup> /mm<sup>3</sup> ) are lower than that of buck kid (2.56 6.11 <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup> /mm<sup>3</sup> ), Kano brown buck kid (3.4 0.01 106 / mm3 ), and Kano brown doe kid (4.9 6.11 106 /mm3 ), respectively. But total protein of Borno white buck (47 1.2 g/dl) is lower than that of Sokoto red buck (69.0 1.33 g/dl), whereas albumin of Borno white doe (26.00 1.1 g/dl) is lower than that of Sokoto red doe (29.0 0.06 g/dl), respectively [29]. Factors affecting erythrocyte management system such as intensive, semi-intensive, and extensive systems of grazing could change erythrocytes. Cattle under intensive care had erythrocytes at the beginning of grazing (6.62 106 /mm3 )

as compared to the end of grazing (6.29 106

and 7.26 106

Figure 10.

reptiles.

93

Figure 9.

basophil; L, small lymphocyte; T, thrombocyte.

erythrocytes of 6.93 106

sive care had an erythrocyte increase of 6.69 106

/mm3

/mm3 at the beginning in comparison with 7.23 106

/mm3 after grazing. But cattle that grazed on pasture in group had

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). B, degranulated

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

Macrophages in peripheral blood. (Left) Melanomacrophage in a clinically healthy loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). (Right) Macrophage with intracytoplasmic nucleoproteinaceous debris in a common boa constrictor (Boa constrictor imperator). Macrophages are occasionally observed in the blood of clinically normal

). However, those under exten-

/mm3 at the beginning of grazing

/mm3

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

#### Figure 9.

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). B, degranulated basophil; L, small lymphocyte; T, thrombocyte.

#### Figure 10.

(8.00 0.29%), respectively. Erythrocytes of Sokoto red doe kid (1.96 0.5

Peripheral blood from a clinically healthy flowerback box turtle (Cuora galbinifrons). A mature eosinophil (E) and an immature eosinophil (Eimmature). A few of the mature erythrocytes contain small, basophilic

Peripheral blood from (left) an American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) and (right) a spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus). Heterophils (H) are severely toxic, with degranulation, indistinct cytoplasmic vacuolation, and abnormal granules. The caiman heterophils also have increased cytoplasmic basophilia and

respectively. But total protein of Borno white buck (47 1.2 g/dl) is lower than that of Sokoto red buck (69.0 1.33 g/dl), whereas albumin of Borno white doe (26.00 1.1 g/dl) is lower than that of Sokoto red doe (29.0 0.06 g/dl), respectively [29]. Factors affecting erythrocyte management system such as intensive, semi-intensive, and extensive systems of grazing could change erythrocytes. Cattle under intensive care had erythrocytes at the beginning of grazing (6.62 106

/mm<sup>3</sup>

), and Kano brown doe kid (4.9 6.11 106

), Kano brown

/mm3 ),

/mm3 )

) are lower than that of buck kid (2.56 6.11 <sup>10</sup><sup>6</sup>

/ mm3

inclusions consistent with degenerate organelles (arrowheads). P, polychromatophils.

10<sup>6</sup> /mm<sup>3</sup>

92

Figure 8.

Figure 7.

Erythrocyte

immature nuclei.

buck kid (3.4 0.01 106

Macrophages in peripheral blood. (Left) Melanomacrophage in a clinically healthy loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). (Right) Macrophage with intracytoplasmic nucleoproteinaceous debris in a common boa constrictor (Boa constrictor imperator). Macrophages are occasionally observed in the blood of clinically normal reptiles.

as compared to the end of grazing (6.29 106 /mm3 ). However, those under extensive care had an erythrocyte increase of 6.69 106 /mm3 at the beginning of grazing and 7.26 106 /mm3 after grazing. But cattle that grazed on pasture in group had erythrocytes of 6.93 106 /mm3 at the beginning in comparison with 7.23 106 /mm3

#### Figure 11.

Peripheral blood from an emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus) with positive blood culture for Corynebacterium sp. Several monocytes (macrophages) contain phagocytized erythrocytes and greenish black hemosiderin pigment. The cell in the upper left appears mitotic.

after grazing. Total protein was significantly higher in all the groups before grazing as compared to after grazing [30]. Erythrocytes of Nigerian laughing dove (Streptopelia senegalensis) after 4 weeks and 8 weeks in captivity are 3.76 0.01 and 3.01 0.11 106=μl, respectively. The PCV after 4 weeks (42.60 0.86%) was higher than after 8 weeks (34.60 1.47%), respectively. Hemoglobin was significantly higher after 4 weeks (14.04 0.25 g/dl) than 11.26 0.48 g/dl after 8 weeks. But total protein and albumin were slightly lower after 4 weeks than after 8 weeks, suggesting that captivity could lead to decreased erythrocyte count [21]. Erythrocytes of West

Peripheral blood from a peninsula ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritus sackenii) (left) and terciopelo (Bothrops asper) (right) with SEV infections. The erythrocytes contain crystalline inclusions (arrows) and granular eosinophilic viral inclusions (arrowheads) characteristic of SEV. Nucleus (N) of an erythroid

precursor that contains a viral inclusion. M, mitotic figure; R, rubricyte; T, thrombocyte.

Peripheral blood from (left) a rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria cenchria) and (right) a common boa constrictor (Boa constrictor imperator) with inclusion body disease. Lymphocytes contain homogenous basophilic inclusions that displace the nucleus. A partially lysed thrombocyte is also seen in the image on the left.

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

/mm3

hemoglobin is 9.8 0.3 g/dl, respectively, whereas total protein and albumin are 7.1 01 g/dl and 2.4 0.7 g/dl, respectively [18]. Increase in erythrocytes, hemoglobin, and lactate in Mugil cephalus (fish) in comparison with other species of fish

, hematocrit is 29.4 0.8%, and

African dwarf goats are 11.5 0.4 106

Figure 13.

Figure 14.

95

Figure 12.

Peripheral blood from a blood python (Python brongersmai) with chronic constipation. A, azurophil; B, basophil; H, heterophil; L, small lymphocyte; M, mildly vacuolated monocyte; T, thrombocytes, and mature erythrocytes.

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

#### Figure 13.

Figure 11.

Erythrocyte

Figure 12.

94

pigment. The cell in the upper left appears mitotic.

Peripheral blood from an emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus) with positive blood culture for Corynebacterium sp. Several monocytes (macrophages) contain phagocytized erythrocytes and greenish black hemosiderin

Peripheral blood from a blood python (Python brongersmai) with chronic constipation. A, azurophil; B, basophil; H, heterophil; L, small lymphocyte; M, mildly vacuolated monocyte; T, thrombocytes, and mature erythrocytes.

Peripheral blood from (left) a rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria cenchria) and (right) a common boa constrictor (Boa constrictor imperator) with inclusion body disease. Lymphocytes contain homogenous basophilic inclusions that displace the nucleus. A partially lysed thrombocyte is also seen in the image on the left.

#### Figure 14.

Peripheral blood from a peninsula ribbon snake (Thamnophis sauritus sackenii) (left) and terciopelo (Bothrops asper) (right) with SEV infections. The erythrocytes contain crystalline inclusions (arrows) and granular eosinophilic viral inclusions (arrowheads) characteristic of SEV. Nucleus (N) of an erythroid precursor that contains a viral inclusion. M, mitotic figure; R, rubricyte; T, thrombocyte.

after grazing. Total protein was significantly higher in all the groups before grazing as compared to after grazing [30]. Erythrocytes of Nigerian laughing dove (Streptopelia senegalensis) after 4 weeks and 8 weeks in captivity are 3.76 0.01 and 3.01 0.11 106=μl, respectively. The PCV after 4 weeks (42.60 0.86%) was higher than after 8 weeks (34.60 1.47%), respectively. Hemoglobin was significantly higher after 4 weeks (14.04 0.25 g/dl) than 11.26 0.48 g/dl after 8 weeks. But total protein and albumin were slightly lower after 4 weeks than after 8 weeks, suggesting that captivity could lead to decreased erythrocyte count [21]. Erythrocytes of West African dwarf goats are 11.5 0.4 106 /mm3 , hematocrit is 29.4 0.8%, and hemoglobin is 9.8 0.3 g/dl, respectively, whereas total protein and albumin are 7.1 01 g/dl and 2.4 0.7 g/dl, respectively [18]. Increase in erythrocytes, hemoglobin, and lactate in Mugil cephalus (fish) in comparison with other species of fish

#### Figure 15.

Peripheral blood from an eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon corais couperi) with Hepatozoon sp. infection. Gametocytes can be seen in three highly swollen erythrocytes and one rubricyte. H, heterophil; P, polychromatophils.

#### Figure 16.

Peripheral blood from an Asian cobra (Naja naja kaouthia) with marked leukocytosis (388,000/ml) diagnosed as a chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Neoplastic lymphocytes (L), polychromatophils (P). Lymphocytes were identified as T cell in origin by using immunocytochemistry.

such as Gobius niger, Sparus aurata, and Dicentrarchus labrax could be attributed to

Blood smear from a monitor lizard (Varanus sp.). Azurophils (center) have a round to oval nucleus and blue cytoplasm and contain very fine azurophilic granules. Lymphocytes are round to irregularly shaped, have an

Blood smear from a monitor lizard (Varanus sp.). Note the size, shape, and color of the polychromatic

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

/mm3

) is higher than that of

their feeding behavior, adaptation to the environment, and lifestyle [31].

eccentric nucleus with dense chromatin, and have a large nuclear: cytoplasmic ratio.

Erythrocyte count of Balami ewe (9.66 0.12 106

Figure 17.

erythrocyte.

Figure 18.

97

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

#### Figure 17.

Figure 15.

Erythrocyte

Figure 16.

96

polychromatophils.

Peripheral blood from an eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon corais couperi) with Hepatozoon sp. infection.

Gametocytes can be seen in three highly swollen erythrocytes and one rubricyte. H, heterophil; P,

Peripheral blood from an Asian cobra (Naja naja kaouthia) with marked leukocytosis (388,000/ml) diagnosed as a chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Neoplastic lymphocytes (L), polychromatophils (P). Lymphocytes

were identified as T cell in origin by using immunocytochemistry.

Blood smear from a monitor lizard (Varanus sp.). Note the size, shape, and color of the polychromatic erythrocyte.

#### Figure 18.

Blood smear from a monitor lizard (Varanus sp.). Azurophils (center) have a round to oval nucleus and blue cytoplasm and contain very fine azurophilic granules. Lymphocytes are round to irregularly shaped, have an eccentric nucleus with dense chromatin, and have a large nuclear: cytoplasmic ratio.

such as Gobius niger, Sparus aurata, and Dicentrarchus labrax could be attributed to their feeding behavior, adaptation to the environment, and lifestyle [31]. Erythrocyte count of Balami ewe (9.66 0.12 106 /mm3 ) is higher than that of

#### Figure 19.

Blood smear from a kingsnake (Lampropeltis sp.). Thrombocytes are often in clusters. The heterophil in the center is densely packed with granules, making the granular shapes almost indistinguishable.

Figure 20. Blood smear showing monocytes (arrows) from a green iguana (Iguana iguana).

Yankasa ewe (9.31 0.78 106 /mm3 ), Ouda ewe (9.25 0.02 106 /mm3 ), Yankasa ram (7.80 0.62 106 /mm3 ), Balami ram (7.21 0.42 106 /mm3 ), and Ouda ram (6.49 0.01 106 /mm3 ), respectively. Ouda ram has the highest PCV value of 64 2.14%, whereas Yankasa ram has the least PCV value of 28.90 0.02%

[32]. Reference value for erythrocytes in cow (5–<sup>10</sup> 106

Figure 21.

Figure 22.

99

(center). Two heterophils are also present.

(24–45%), cow (24–48%), rabbit (30–50%), guinea pig (37–48%), and swine (32–50%), respectively, show that swine has the highest PCV value in this group of

Blood smear from a green iguana (Iguana iguana). In some species of reptiles, eosinophils contain blue granules

Blood smear from a kingsnake (Lampropeltis sp.) showing two azurophils and a lymphocyte.

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

/mm3

) and PCV for sheep

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85865

#### Figure 21.

Blood smear from a kingsnake (Lampropeltis sp.) showing two azurophils and a lymphocyte.

#### Figure 22.

Blood smear from a green iguana (Iguana iguana). In some species of reptiles, eosinophils contain blue granules (center). Two heterophils are also present.

[32]. Reference value for erythrocytes in cow (5–<sup>10</sup> 106 /mm3 ) and PCV for sheep (24–45%), cow (24–48%), rabbit (30–50%), guinea pig (37–48%), and swine (32–50%), respectively, show that swine has the highest PCV value in this group of

Yankasa ewe (9.31 0.78 106

Yankasa ram (7.80 0.62 106

Ouda ram (6.49 0.01 106

Figure 20.

98

Figure 19.

Erythrocyte

/mm3

/mm3

value of 64 2.14%, whereas Yankasa ram has the least PCV value of 28.90 0.02%

Blood smear from a kingsnake (Lampropeltis sp.). Thrombocytes are often in clusters. The heterophil in the

center is densely packed with granules, making the granular shapes almost indistinguishable.

/mm3

Blood smear showing monocytes (arrows) from a green iguana (Iguana iguana).

), Ouda ewe (9.25 0.02 106

), Balami ram (7.21 0.42 106

), respectively. Ouda ram has the highest PCV

/mm3 ),

/mm3

), and

and rapid staining tests produce superior results in comparison to Giemsa

Effects of Therapeutic and Toxic Agents on Erythrocytes of Different Species of Animals

toward antimalarial vaccine may be much near to fruition [35].

and leukocytosis, but 10–20% of results are abnormal [42].

cating the drugs cannot differentiate good cells from bad cells [41].

Low calcium concentrations were reported in erythrocytes of patients with depressive disorders [46] indicating that erythrocytes could be used to assess therapeutic success of depressive illness and high calcium level could abate the disease. There was higher concentration of soluble catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) in erythrocytes of patients suffering from bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder than anorexia nervosa [47] indicating that erythrocytes could be used for diagnosis of eating disorders. Favism, neonatal icterus, hereditary non-spherocytic hemolytic

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is characterized by dense dehydrated red blood cells (DRBCs) that undergo polymerization and sickling due to sickle cell hemoglobin (Hbs) concentration. DRBCs in sickle cell disease patients caused priapism, renal dysfunction, skin ulcer, deletion of α-thalassemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and increased lactate dehydrogenase [38]. There is comorbidity of SCD and malaria among indigenes of Northwestern Nigeria with highest incidence of SS (51.8%), SC (28.4%), AS (16.2%), and SS + F (3.6%), respectively. Hemophilia, epistaxis, and splenomegaly, among others, are associated with SCD. Weight, packed cell volume, hemoglobin, total blood volume, red blood cell volume, and plasma volume are seriously affected in sickle cell patients that are not therapeutically managed causing the need for blood transfusion. Good prognosis is guaranteed by polypharmacy that involves the use of hematonic, anti-sickling, analgesic, antimalarial, and antiinflammatory drugs. Patients from Northwestern Nigeria can live up to 49 years [24]. Raphanus sativus, Arbutus unedo, Luffa acutangula, Lycopersicum esculentum, Cucumis melo, Brassica oleracea var. capitata, Allium porrum, Petroselinum sativum, Phoenix dactylifera, and Ficus carica can be used for management of blood and blood-related diseases including the diseases of erythrocytes [39, 40]. Efforts made

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia is associated with erythrocytes characterized by hemolysis and autoantibodies of anti-erythrocytes. Neurological sign is common in pernicious anemia. However normal morphology of erythrocytes and leucocytes is necessary for diagnosis of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. But pernicious anemia is characterized by dyserythropoiesis and low vitamin B12 with antiintrinsic factor and anti-gastric mural cell antibodies being positive. Hence pernicious anemia is treated using vitamin B12 [41]. Complete blood count (CBC) identifies anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, polycythemia, thrombocytosis,

The life span of erythrocytes in human is 120 days; 20 μl of the erythrocytes are produced daily. But the circulating red blood cells vary among individuals of the same age and gender by over 10%. Mechanisms of anemia in solid tumors are by intrinsic or iatrogenic blood loss; iron or folic acid deficiency; autoimmune, traumatic, or drug-induced hemolysis; bone marrow factor caused by myelofibrosis; marrow necrosis; infection; inflammation; and cancer elsewhere in the body. Erythropoietin is important in the production of erythrocytes. Erythropoietin maybe impaired by tumor inflammatory cytokines [43]. Erythrocytes and hemoglobin promote tumor cell growth by increasing nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors' expression and cause induction of IL-1b release, macrophage recruitment, and polarization. Therefore, hemorrhage could be used as a sign of therapeutic failure in cancer patients, because it promotes tumor cell growth and anticancer drug resistance [44]. Facilitation of breast cancer treatment by nanoscaled erythrocytes is via a combination of photodynamic, photothermal, and chemotherapy [45]. Erythrocytes can be lost in the blood lost from cancer surgery and anticancer drugs which affect fast-dividing normal cells and cancerous cells, indi-

method [37].

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101

#### Figure 23.

Blood smear from a monitor lizard (Varanus sp.). Slight distortion of the basophil (center) reveals the nucleus and granules.

animals. But reference value of hemoglobin concentration for swine (10–16 g/dl), sheep (8–16 g/dl), cow (15–18 g/dl), rabbit (10–15 g/dl), and guinea pig (11–15 g/dl), respectively, indicates that cow has the highest hemoglobin concentration, perhaps resulting from hemolysis. Toxicants, environmental factors, genetics, age, sex, breed, and management system could affect erythrocytes of farm animals [33]. An image-based error (3%) for counting of RBCs has been reported for Leopardus pardalis, Cebus apella, and Nasua nasua. However the RBC values for Canis familiaris (5.50–8.50 106 /mm3 ), Equus caballus (6.10–11.0 106 /mm3 ), Leopardus pardalis (4.07–6.16 106 /mm3 ), Cebus apella (3.49–5.48 106 /mm3 ), and Nasua nasua (3.88–5.35 106 /mm3 ) with the species showing RBC interval of 3.47–11.0 106 /μl) [34], respectively, show that erythrocyte volume varies from species to species of animals.
