5. Conclusion

4.9 Anemia as a major sign of erythrocyte deformation

Causes of anemia in cats are acute blood loss, chronic inflammatory disease, renal disease, feline leukemia, immune-mediated hemolytic anemia, pure red cell aplasia, myeloproliferative syndrome, mycoplasma infection, cytauxzoonosis, iron deficiency, and nutritional deficiency. The prognosis of feline nonregenerative anemia is variable, reversible, chronic, or fatal [121]. The spleen contributes to anemia by removing the damaged erythrocytes. Hereditary spherocytosis is spectrin-deficient and ankyrin-deficient erythrocytes dependent and could cause hemolysis [122]. Glycogen storage disease could affect erythrocytes. The disease is classified as follows: Type 1 (von Gierke's disease) is caused by deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate, whereas type 2 (Pompe's disease) is generalized glycogenosis.

But type 3 (limit dextrinosis) is characterized by deficiency of the amylo-1,

Clostridium perfringens, parvovirus B19, Epstein-Barr virus, and acquired

diagnostic approach [126]. Hereditary erythrocyte volume homeostasis is heterogeneous with phenotypes ranging from overhydrated to dehydrated

findings [127].

Erythrocyte

of rheumatoid arthritis [133].

108

B antigen [124]. Disorders of erythrocytes hydration are overhydration, hereditary hydrocytosis, cryohydrocytosis, dehydration, and hereditary xerocytosis which are genetic [125]. Chronic liver disease could cause anemia but requires a complex

erythrocytes usually characterized by laboratory, physiological, clinical, and genetic

Examination of urine sediment could serve as a guide for diagnosis and management of kidney disease [128] in relation to erythrocyte disorders. Erythrocytes have linked type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer disease in human. Superimposed alterations have been observed in Alzheimer disease patients caused by oxidative stress of erythrocytes [129], suggesting that therapeutic target on RBCs could alleviate Alzheimer disease. Hence erythrocytes' mechanical properties toward microfluidics could provide a clinical correlate in diseases of erythrocytes [130]. End-stage renal disease causes alteration of erythrocytes. Therefore, erythrocytes from peritoneal dialysis patients are more prone to aggregation that may be caused by uremia, hypoproteinemia, and high oxidative stress on erythrocytes, impairing blood flow dynamics and causing inadequate microcirculatory perfusion [131]. Erythrocyte complement receptor type 1 (E-CR 1) level of expression could be used as a diagnostic marker for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) [132]. The level of concentration of methotrexate polyglutamate in erythrocytes is associated with alleviation

Blood transfusion and febrile condition could also affect morphology of erythrocytes and erythrocyte count [134]. However, 15% of cancer patients with anemia are given blood transfusion and with hemoglobin level of <9 g/dl used as index of

anemia. After transfusion hemoglobin rises by 1 g/dl, and the transfused

6-glucosidase or debrancher enzyme, and type 4 is characterized by hepatic cirrhosis, abnormal glycogen resembling amylopectin, and deficiency of amylo-1, 4-1, 6-transglucosidase. Type 5 is characterized by weakness of muscle and phosphorylase deficiency in adults, and type 6 is clinically similar to type 1, characterized by higher phosphorylase. But type 3 has the highest concentration of glycogen, in the erythrocytes, but the concentration of glycogen is normal in type 1 and 2 [123]. Plasmodium species, Babesia species, and Bartonella species can target erythrocytes directly, whereas immunogens, microbial toxins, crypt antigens, and suppression of erythropoiesis can target erythrocytes indirectly. Duffy blood group antigens, ABO blood group antigens, Knops blood group antigen, Gerbich blood group antigen, babesiosis, bartonellosis, and toxoplasmosis target RBCs primarily. Erythrocytes are targeted for immunogenic clearance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae type B, Salmonella species, polyagglutination T activation,

Erythrocytes are red blood cells that transport oxygen from the alveoli to other parts of the body. Hence they are very vital connective tissues that play a metabolic role on the functional organ system. Its pathological features could be used for diagnosis of a myriad of metabolic, non-metabolic, infectious, noninfectious, hereditary, and non-hereditary diseases. Erythrocyte shape, size, area, and volume could be used to determine a prognosis of a disease. Erythrocytes also store some drugs invariably prolonging their half-life. Hemolysis can lead to anemia that is treated using hematonics. But severe blood loss is corrected by blood transfusion.

## Author details

Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: pharn\_saga2006@yahoo.com

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