**1. Introduction**

194 Learning Disabilities

Troia, G. & Maddox, M. (2004). Writing instruction in middle schools: special and general

Valle, A.; Núñez, J.; Cabanach, R.; González, J.; Rodríguez, S.; Rosário, P.; Cerezo, R. &

Villalobos, J. (2007). La enseñanza de la escritura a nivel universitario: Fundamentos teóricos

12, No. 1, pp. 19-37, ISSN 0936-2835.

*Artículos arbitrados, Vol. 36,* pp. 61-71.

Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 724-731, ISSN 1132-9483.

education teachers share their views and voice their concerns. *Exceptionality,* Vol.

Muñoz, M. (2008). Self-regulated profiles and academic achievement. *Psicothema,* 

y actividades prácticas basados en la teoría sociocultural [Teaching writing at university level: Theoretical and practical activities based on sociocultural theory]

> When considering the role of teachers in education an estimation and simplification could be made, indicating that their activity depends on factors that revolve around four key areas: students, time, space, and the characteristics of the institution. The enjoyment or discontent of their students, the number of students and the duration of the classes, the space available for physical activity and the support from other teachers and the institution, positively or negatively impact their availability to teach in a general sense and the selfregulation of their practice. We could say that understanding how a teachers' effectiveness influences overcoming the obstacles which are part of the process of education depends on many factors, including, among others, those described above, as well as other aspects, some of which will be studied in this article (Pacheco et al., 2009; Pacheco et al., 2008; Martin & Hodges, 2003).

> The knowledge on the effectiveness of teaching specific lessons, such as developing writing skills is somewhat limited for teachers. However, many of these barriers, and the effectiveness of teachers in handling them would seem to be a logical obstruction to achieving other objectives and outcomes in their classroom. In this way, *belief in the selfefficacy or individuals' the set of beliefs about their own ability to achieve certain results* is a variable that needs to be considered in the study of teachers' practices (Bandura, 2005).

> Beliefs concerning efficacy influence people's thoughts, both to stimulate and to disparage (optimism or pessimism) several aspects: the courses of action they choose to pursue, the challenges and goals that they set for themselves, their commitment to them, the amount of effort they invest in certain endeavors, the results they expect to achieve for their efforts, the magnitude of their perseverance against obstacles, the resistance to adversity, the levels of stress and pressure experienced when faced with challenging environment, and the achievements that they accomplish. The different areas of activity, performance, strategies, beliefs in the effectiveness for learning and developing their skills as teachers are some of the conditions associated with social cognitive theory. This theory presents some variation regarding the different domains of functioning (Álvarez et al., 2011; Pacheco et al., 2009; Bandura, 2005).

> In addition, teachers' perceptions motivation to implement new ideas and teaching methods can generate changes in their conceptions of the teaching-learning process (de Caso &

Diagnosis of Teachers' Practice in the Teaching of Written Composition 197

sensitivity to achieve effective education that helps students develop as people and, if the ultimate goal of education is to inspire the desire to learn rather being a simple information transfer, this enables teachers to adapt or transform their practice (Pacheco et al., 2006;

Regarding the assessment of students' cognitive skills, we found that the misgivings concerning the quality of teacher assessment are not unusual in themselves, as teachers are not necessarily competent assessors. Certainly they do not consider the many ways in which human judgments are subject to unintentional distortions, similar to the halo effect, or the effects of order and the transfer of rules. There is also a chance that the assessment trend becomes "slack" and generates specific complications: the tasks assigned to students which involve students choosing the topics or issues may diminish the quality of assessments for these students. Moreover, according to research, teachers should register, tally their assessments and communicate the results with the help of students, family, colleagues, the school administration and government advisors (Flores & Monroy, 2008; Stokking et al.,

In this way, when inquiring about the quality of assessment practices, the research shows that firstly, there is no unique theoretical model to assess the cognitive abilities of students and, secondly, the requirements for research in skills development and for the goals that teachers set for their students depend on the notion of discipline, the willingness to investigate and report, and the expectations of how the pupils may be able to learn. The contribution of the research studies review opens an avenue for further research concerning the quality of the teachers' practice and the development of their applied skills in teaching across various or in specific disciplines (Flores & Monroy, 2008;

As for writing, the review of empirical studies has demonstrated the use of techniques, strategies and instruments to encourage both teachers in the practice of the profession and future teachers to reflect on the self-regulation of their professional practice. In this sense, when investigating writing in the educational process (processes, models, strategies, etc.) noted that these are key tools that teachers must know about to be able to carry out the teaching of writing and help students acquire competence and fluency at a lexical level, gradually becoming skilled in the mechanisms of writing. Since the consolidation and mastery of the spelling system is a lengthy process, requiring a great deal of experience and practice, teachers should teach and encourage their students to employ self-regulation and to control written production. Hence the common goal of teaching strategies is to help students become self-learners, able to learn by themselves (de Caso et al., 2011; Pacheco,

When we explore the role and importance of the different strategies used in developing teachers' reflective skills through instruments such as questionnaires and interviews, as well as examining the influence of their approaches, their thoughts, their stance and observations on writing (Pacheco et al., 2007; Bain et al., 2002). In this regard, in reviewing the empirical studies at an international level, as there is a lack of information on the Spanish case, we have seen the development, validation and implementation of instruments that measure the role of the teachers' practice in the classroom, and this has permitted the collection of relevant data on the topic, such as the scale of writing orientation, *Writing Orientation Scale*

Prieto et al., 2008; Liew et al., 2008; Tardy & Snyder, 2004).

2004).

Stokking et al., 2004).

2010; Rosino, 2009).

García, 2006; García & de Caso, 2004, 2006a). Teachers may modify the preconceived ideas they have about any particular subject when faced with the need for a change of approach that is generated in society or in education. Training courses on new approaches can encourage them to talk about new ideas in cooperative groups and to relate theory to practice (Bazarra et al., 2004). In the case of adopting the constructivist approach and implementing its practice in the classroom, for example, by encouraging them to abandon the "spoon feeding" style of teaching in favor of a self-centered learning style and to discourage teacher-centered learning for student-centered learning, or choosing a democratic over an authoritarian style, placing greater emphasis on real and everyday life experiences rather than on approaches based on memorization and discarding traditional methods of evaluation for new methods that allow students to explain what they know or have learnt in different ways (Al-Weher, 2004; Flowers & Monroy, 2008).

With regard to educational research, the majority of teachers believed that the scientific method is present in the curriculum but is not employed in practice, which indicates the true situation for research (Sierra et al., 2009). This knowledge may allow them to suggest improvements in the areas of training in educational research. Some examples would be to research: how children learn, how students are motivated and which materials are necessary to make learning concepts more interesting for the students, the teacher-student interaction, whether real life examples stimulate students to study specific concepts, why students have problems with certain concepts or skills in certain areas, etc. According to the studies reviewed, the implications derived in terms of what teachers think and believe allow us to conclude that these teachers should be better prepared as regards the *what, where and how* of research in education (Al-Weher, 2004; Sierra et al., 2009).

When teachers are asked or inquire about what they think teaching is some of the studies reviewed showed that this provides them with an arena to talk about their beliefs and values in relation to their practices. More specifically, they are provided with ways to think about how they self-regulate, perceive their successes in teaching and also to contemplate ways to help them develop a sense of satisfaction as concerns their practice. The definitions, specifications and consistency of their answers can help obtain and identify the key patterns or categories that characterize their experiences of their actions. Interest, commitment, authentic communication, spontaneity, teacher-student dialogue and moments of learning, define and describe the moments in which the teachers perceive that learning occurs both for themselves and for students. The moments in which learning takes place, are considered to be within the classroom and not in their personal lives (Pacheco et al., 2008; Prieto et al., 2008; Tardy & Snyder, 2004).

When a teacher with a sense of satisfaction is in a teaching situation and feels involved other than merely mechanically, the teaching is productive. The importance of the sense of acting gives them a sense of wisdom about what they do and why they do it (Tardy & Snyder, 2004). According to researchers this suggests that education must provide opportunities for teachers to refine or improve their perceptions or self-regulation in their practice, thus encouraging reflection, exploration and articulation of their work. This also permits a good approach from the theoretical point of view; it can illuminate the understanding of language teaching from the teachers' perspective. When this occurs, the teacher is motivated in the workplace, enjoys what s/he is doing and therefore encourages her/his students. Such progress in learning is important both for students and for teachers because it provides the

García, 2006; García & de Caso, 2004, 2006a). Teachers may modify the preconceived ideas they have about any particular subject when faced with the need for a change of approach that is generated in society or in education. Training courses on new approaches can encourage them to talk about new ideas in cooperative groups and to relate theory to practice (Bazarra et al., 2004). In the case of adopting the constructivist approach and implementing its practice in the classroom, for example, by encouraging them to abandon the "spoon feeding" style of teaching in favor of a self-centered learning style and to discourage teacher-centered learning for student-centered learning, or choosing a democratic over an authoritarian style, placing greater emphasis on real and everyday life experiences rather than on approaches based on memorization and discarding traditional methods of evaluation for new methods that allow students to explain what they know or

With regard to educational research, the majority of teachers believed that the scientific method is present in the curriculum but is not employed in practice, which indicates the true situation for research (Sierra et al., 2009). This knowledge may allow them to suggest improvements in the areas of training in educational research. Some examples would be to research: how children learn, how students are motivated and which materials are necessary to make learning concepts more interesting for the students, the teacher-student interaction, whether real life examples stimulate students to study specific concepts, why students have problems with certain concepts or skills in certain areas, etc. According to the studies reviewed, the implications derived in terms of what teachers think and believe allow us to conclude that these teachers should be better prepared as regards the *what, where and how* of

When teachers are asked or inquire about what they think teaching is some of the studies reviewed showed that this provides them with an arena to talk about their beliefs and values in relation to their practices. More specifically, they are provided with ways to think about how they self-regulate, perceive their successes in teaching and also to contemplate ways to help them develop a sense of satisfaction as concerns their practice. The definitions, specifications and consistency of their answers can help obtain and identify the key patterns or categories that characterize their experiences of their actions. Interest, commitment, authentic communication, spontaneity, teacher-student dialogue and moments of learning, define and describe the moments in which the teachers perceive that learning occurs both for themselves and for students. The moments in which learning takes place, are considered to be within the classroom and not in their personal lives (Pacheco et al., 2008; Prieto et al.,

When a teacher with a sense of satisfaction is in a teaching situation and feels involved other than merely mechanically, the teaching is productive. The importance of the sense of acting gives them a sense of wisdom about what they do and why they do it (Tardy & Snyder, 2004). According to researchers this suggests that education must provide opportunities for teachers to refine or improve their perceptions or self-regulation in their practice, thus encouraging reflection, exploration and articulation of their work. This also permits a good approach from the theoretical point of view; it can illuminate the understanding of language teaching from the teachers' perspective. When this occurs, the teacher is motivated in the workplace, enjoys what s/he is doing and therefore encourages her/his students. Such progress in learning is important both for students and for teachers because it provides the

have learnt in different ways (Al-Weher, 2004; Flowers & Monroy, 2008).

research in education (Al-Weher, 2004; Sierra et al., 2009).

2008; Tardy & Snyder, 2004).

sensitivity to achieve effective education that helps students develop as people and, if the ultimate goal of education is to inspire the desire to learn rather being a simple information transfer, this enables teachers to adapt or transform their practice (Pacheco et al., 2006; Prieto et al., 2008; Liew et al., 2008; Tardy & Snyder, 2004).

Regarding the assessment of students' cognitive skills, we found that the misgivings concerning the quality of teacher assessment are not unusual in themselves, as teachers are not necessarily competent assessors. Certainly they do not consider the many ways in which human judgments are subject to unintentional distortions, similar to the halo effect, or the effects of order and the transfer of rules. There is also a chance that the assessment trend becomes "slack" and generates specific complications: the tasks assigned to students which involve students choosing the topics or issues may diminish the quality of assessments for these students. Moreover, according to research, teachers should register, tally their assessments and communicate the results with the help of students, family, colleagues, the school administration and government advisors (Flores & Monroy, 2008; Stokking et al., 2004).

In this way, when inquiring about the quality of assessment practices, the research shows that firstly, there is no unique theoretical model to assess the cognitive abilities of students and, secondly, the requirements for research in skills development and for the goals that teachers set for their students depend on the notion of discipline, the willingness to investigate and report, and the expectations of how the pupils may be able to learn. The contribution of the research studies review opens an avenue for further research concerning the quality of the teachers' practice and the development of their applied skills in teaching across various or in specific disciplines (Flores & Monroy, 2008; Stokking et al., 2004).

As for writing, the review of empirical studies has demonstrated the use of techniques, strategies and instruments to encourage both teachers in the practice of the profession and future teachers to reflect on the self-regulation of their professional practice. In this sense, when investigating writing in the educational process (processes, models, strategies, etc.) noted that these are key tools that teachers must know about to be able to carry out the teaching of writing and help students acquire competence and fluency at a lexical level, gradually becoming skilled in the mechanisms of writing. Since the consolidation and mastery of the spelling system is a lengthy process, requiring a great deal of experience and practice, teachers should teach and encourage their students to employ self-regulation and to control written production. Hence the common goal of teaching strategies is to help students become self-learners, able to learn by themselves (de Caso et al., 2011; Pacheco, 2010; Rosino, 2009).

When we explore the role and importance of the different strategies used in developing teachers' reflective skills through instruments such as questionnaires and interviews, as well as examining the influence of their approaches, their thoughts, their stance and observations on writing (Pacheco et al., 2007; Bain et al., 2002). In this regard, in reviewing the empirical studies at an international level, as there is a lack of information on the Spanish case, we have seen the development, validation and implementation of instruments that measure the role of the teachers' practice in the classroom, and this has permitted the collection of relevant data on the topic, such as the scale of writing orientation, *Writing Orientation Scale*

Diagnosis of Teachers' Practice in the Teaching of Written Composition 199

We evaluated 137 teachers from 30 state and private schools in the province of León, Spain (see Table 1), who teach in Spanish language (the native language) and are responsible for students with and without learning difficulties and/or low achievement, in the last year of

The selection criterion for this sample was based on that used in previous studies that the research team has developed in these schools regarding different writing-related areas of interest concerned with the role of working memory and attention on students, both typically achieving and those with learning difficulties of different ages as well as those with

Of the 137 participants, 63.5% were women, 64.23% worked in state schools and 37.77% in private schools. The average age of teachers was 46.92 years, with a maximum of 67 and a minimum of 23 years, indicating maturity and stability in the years of teaching. The average work experience in the field was 23.43 years, indicating a great degree of teaching experience, with 18.84 years in the area of language, which suggests that they are very familiar with the instructional aspects related to the teaching of writing. Only 17 teachers (12.4%) had a teaching or philology degree and the rest have master's degree in various

Educational level Gender No answer Total teachers

25 (18.24%)

The development of the instrument which is the object of this study began by first reviewing the Academic Search Elite databases, which are available at the Central Library of the University of León. Moreover, it was essential to study and review the Royal Decrees, educational programs and guides which establish the syllabi for both infant and primary education. This allows us to collect information about the evaluation criteria in the area of

Table 1. Distribution of the sample of teachers by gender and educational stage.

7 0 1 8 (5.83%)

24 6 5 35 (25.54%)

27 9 8 44 (32.11%)

29 10 11 50 (36.49%)

25 (18.24%) 137

infant education and the first three years of primary education.

**2. Methodology 2.1 Participants** 

and without ADHD.

fields, but none in special education.

The third stage of Infant

The first stage of Primary

The third stage of Primary

TOTAL TEACHERS 87

The second stage of Primary Education

Education

Education

Education

**2.2 Instruments** 

FEMALE MALE

(63.5%)

Spanish language in each of the educational stages studied.

(Graham et al., 2002), which analyzes and assesses the teachers' beliefs regarding the formal and informal methods for teaching writing. The scale of teacher effectiveness in writing, *Teacher Efficacy Scale for Writing* (Graham et al., 2001) describes personal and general selfefficiency. The scale of teachers' writing practices, *Teacher Writing Practices Scale* (Graham et al., 2000) provides information on the skills involved in writing and the instruction methods used by teachers in the classroom. These questionnaires are useful for assessing both teachers' theoretical orientation in relation to the writing teaching-learning process, as well as the procedures and activities that are generally followed in the teaching of writing, i.e. the type of practices that are developed in class from three different dimensions, (i) the thoughts concerning the effects of this type of instruction, (ii) the correction of writing and (iii) the natural methods of learning.

The data obtained in the review of studies show that the teachers' beliefs exert a strong influence on their practices and the success of their students in the classroom. In the area of language, for example, some theories suggest that these practices are shaped by the theoretical concepts or beliefs that teachers have on reading and writing instruction. If we correlate the efficacy and beliefs in their teaching of writing, the results are consistent with the statement that those teachers with a greater humanistic and a less controlling approach have a high sense of teaching efficacy. The authors of these studies believe that the effectiveness of teachers is an important element for effective teaching of writing. Therefore, knowledge of the theoretical approaches and guidelines on the instruction of teachers is significant in understanding the processes of teaching and learning (Graham, 2006; Troia, 2006; Troia & Maddox, 2004).

These considerations justify the objective of this study, as it seeks to study and evaluate the processes and components of writing from the teachers' point of view (the student's motivation, the role of parents or family in this process, the use of strategies, procedures and instruments used by the teacher in teaching writing) and, also, teachers' theoretical orientation (beliefs, attributions and expectations, their sense of personal effectiveness and self-regulation) about the teaching-learning process of writing. This objective is consistent with the line of research undertaken by the Team of Excellence for Research Intervention Psychological Difficulties in Learning and Development [IPDDA], led by Dr. JN Garcia-Sanchez at the University of León in 1994. The line of research has focused on studying the factors, determinants and processes of writing. Furthermore, research studies have covered the following areas: the evaluation and implementation of analytical tools for writing, their evolution and development, as their involvement and optimization; the improvement of planning in writing for pupils with learning difficulties, and also on improving reflectivity in writing; the development of the motivation to write; the study of assessment-related morphological awareness, in working memory or attention; the improvement of metacognition in writing, self-knowledge and self-improvement in processes for reviewing the written message. In this respect, when we consider writing as a recursive process with significant cognitive demands concerning attention, operational memory and we also consider writing as rewriting, requiring significant planning and the use of effective instructional strategies, the teacher's role and what they do or the approach they take are relevant and essential in this evolution (García & de Caso, 2007; García & Fidalgo, 2008a, 2008b; García & Rodriguez, 2007; Fidalgo et al., 2008; Pacheco et al., 2009; García, 2007).
