**1. Introduction**

174 Learning Disabilities

Robinson, S. M. (1999). Meeting the needs of students who are gifted and have learning

Sumida, M. (2010). Identifying twice-exceptional children and three gifted styles in the

Vespi, L., & Yewchuk, C. (1992). A phenomenological study of the social/emotional

Weinfeld, R., Barnes-Robinson, L., Jeweler, S., & Shevitz, B. R. (2006). *Smart Kids with* 

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*Gifted*, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 55-72, ISSN 0162-3532

4512

disabilities. *Intervention in School and Clinic*, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 195-204, ISSN 1053-

Japanese primary sceince classroom. *International Journal of Science Education*, Vol.

characteristics of gifted learning disabled children. *Journal for the Education of the* 

*Learning Difficulties: Overcoming Obstacles and Realizing Potential*, Prufrock Press,

Recent research confirms that it is of great interest and relevance to analyze the level of agreement between the beliefs, attitudes, sense of self-efficacy, learning approaches and self-regulation of the teaching staff and students' achievement in written composition. In most cases, these studies present examples of the practical relationship between the teacher and the students' achievement in the instrumental areas linked to the teaching of writing, such as in the area of reading and mathematics. These studies are significant inasmuch as they have produced valuable information with respect to the levels of education, participants, instruments employed, interventions, teaching or rollout programs carried out, as well as information related to the priorities, organization and development of the research. These interesting contributions lead us to consider which aspects are evaluated within the classroom; the variables which are used to relate the teachers' practices to the students' achievements; the results obtained; the theoretical and educational implications, the limitations and deficiencies of the studies and suggestions for future research. (Álvarez et al., 2011; Díez et al., 2009; Pacheco et al., 2009; Pacheco et al., 2007).

In the process of revising within a Spanish and international cultural setting what promoted the interaction between teachers' practice and writing achievement, we found studies that claim that teachers' practices must be educationally consistent – integrating education and evaluation - in order to obtain positive effects in the activities, processes and results of the of students' learning (Flórez & Monroy, 2008; Stokking et al., 2004).

Other studies have elaborated different categories explaining why the suggested practices are essential to students' success. Categories such as extra or additional classes and the use of active participation are examples of categories that help to improve student achievement. Both the authors claim promote the following activities: classes directed and dominated by discussion and work groups; discussions between teachers and students and, more importantly, among students; significant dialogues between students and teachers; active student participation during normal class sessions through questions and answers or discussing homework, break up groups, discussing together (teachers and students) the solutions to some problems, etc.; and, where categories and topics arise from the students, the teachers can provide answers (de la Fuente et al., 2008; Nkhoma, 2002).

The Quality of Teaching Determines Students' Achievement in Writing 177

provide additional aid; the expectation that every student will learn to write; identifying and managing the academic barriers to writing; and, the use and development of technological instruments that improve writing execution. The most interesting point, according to the authors, is to look into how to reduce the children's difficulties in written composition and how the school and teachers can help these children with learning

According to research, the writing education that many students receive is inadequate because it focuses almost exclusively on the teaching of lower level writing skills, such as calligraphy and spelling, with few opportunities to actually write. Other students are in classes with an increased frequency of writing tasks , but only a short amount of time is devoted to teaching the necessary writing skills and strategies, as it is assumed that these abilities can be acquired through informal and secondary methods of study. Other children attend schools where practically no time is devoted to ensure writing skills are obtained or to the teaching of writing. It is highly improbable that children with learning disabilities acquire the necessary knowledge in programs such as these (de Caso et al., 2011; Pacheco,

Most researchers believe the teaching of writing for these students should focus as much on prevention as on intervention; it should respond to the specific needs of each student; it should maintain a healthy balance between meaning, process, and form; and it should make as much use of formal methods of study as of informal methods. Designing instruction for the teacher as well as for the educational level is in itself not an easy task. However, it requires a coherent, coordinated, and extensive effort. The writing problems experienced by children with learning difficulties are not transitory difficulties that are eliminated easily, immediately or without establishing precise and effective practices (Graham, 2006; Troia, 2006; Villalobos, 2006; Graham et al., 2002; Graham et al., 2001). Based on the considerations addressed within this framework, in this research we propose, as a fundamental objective, to study written composition teaching practices in relation to the achievement of the students with and without LD and/or under achievement. Teachers' practice is thought to be based on their beliefs, attributions, expectations and the sense of personal efficacy that they hold with respect to the teaching-learning process. This is also closely related to students' achievements and the factors or components that modulate them (the students' motivation, the role that the parents or the family environment play in this process and the teacher's use of strategies, procedures and instruments in the area of writing or, in other curricular areas). Thus, the hypothesis supposes that the teachers' beliefs exert a strong influence on the practice of written composition and are predictive of students' success in the classroom. It is believed that this relationship varies depending on students'

Participants were selected from two types of origin, although interrelated. One group was the sample of teachers taken from a previous study. The other groups were the students (of these teachers) who were classified into three categories - with attention deficit disorder (ADD), and without hyperactivity (ADHD), with or without learning disabilities (LD).

difficulties to improve their writing (Graham, 2006; Graham et al., 2001).

2010; García et al., 2009; Troia, 2006).

level of education and on the type of student.

**2. Methodology** 

**Participants** 

With this in mind, and in accordance with the new approaches regarding the teacherstudent relationship, different studies indicate that, at present, teachers may be able to make changes in the teacher–student continuum. This shift, will in turn lead students to behave more autonomously. The traditional type of interaction, which implies a strongly directive position for teachers, will cease to be effective in enhancing the progress or achievement of the students' autonomy. Additionally, this research emphasizes the terms *teacher centered instruction* - an authoritarian or traditional educational style which does not promote great transformations in the students – as opposed to *student centered learning,* where the education tends to be smooth, progressive and result in transformation (Valle et al., 2008; Flórez & Monroy, 2008; Al-Weher, 2004; Taylor et al., 2002; Nkhoma, 2002).

Regarding the type of practices teachers carry out in the teaching of writing and how they influence academic achievement, some studies reveal specific strategies directed at teachers which have proven effective in creating a great variety of learning situations and effective instruction, in the case of students with and without difficulties of learning (LD) and/or underachievement (UP), so that these students develop their linguistic as well as their writing competence (Rosino, 2009; Fidalgo et al., 2008; Villalobos, 2007; García, 2007; García & Rodriguez, 2007; García et al., 2006).

Teachers should be aware, through the studies that are currently available to them, of the key tools required for writing (processes, models, strategies, etc.), to be able to carry out the teaching of writing and thus help students acquire competence and fluidity at the lexical level, and progressively master the mechanisms of writing. Given that consolidating and becoming proficient in the orthographic system is a long process that demands a great deal of experience and practice, teachers must teach and encourage their students to self-regulate and control their word production. Thus, the common objective of teaching specific strategies is to assist students in becoming self-regulated learners, able to learn by themselves. One of these strategies, for example, is the revision process. Evidence shows that helping students increase the frequency and depth of their revision is a powerful strategy, allowing students the cognitive freedom to focus on the text and its correction (Rosino, 2009; Perez, 2001; Chanquoy, 2001).

In addition, many theories on writing promote the idea that writers' attitudes are formed or developed partly through the use of writing instruments and claim that technological instruments can make the writing process easier as well as increasing motivation for students with LD. These theories maintain that both students and teachers feel the effects of the new means of writing. In the case of the students, these new writing methods are favored, in terms of the quality of the product and the aspects of the students' achievement, which can describe their own behavior. Teachers also report students' greater desire to use these instruments, a greater motivation to begin new projects and to produce greater amounts of written work. The reasons for greater enjoyment include the presentation of high quality work, the speed at which the work can be produced and the ease with which a text can be organized and changed (Jiménez et al., 2003; Parr, 1994).

Other research has made interesting contributions to the principles that should be implemented both in order to prevent difficulties and to develop writing skills. Among these, we can emphasize the following : the provision of effective writing instruction; the preparation of instructions to detect each student's individual needs; early intervention to

With this in mind, and in accordance with the new approaches regarding the teacherstudent relationship, different studies indicate that, at present, teachers may be able to make changes in the teacher–student continuum. This shift, will in turn lead students to behave more autonomously. The traditional type of interaction, which implies a strongly directive position for teachers, will cease to be effective in enhancing the progress or achievement of the students' autonomy. Additionally, this research emphasizes the terms *teacher centered instruction* - an authoritarian or traditional educational style which does not promote great transformations in the students – as opposed to *student centered learning,* where the education tends to be smooth, progressive and result in transformation (Valle et al., 2008;

Regarding the type of practices teachers carry out in the teaching of writing and how they influence academic achievement, some studies reveal specific strategies directed at teachers which have proven effective in creating a great variety of learning situations and effective instruction, in the case of students with and without difficulties of learning (LD) and/or underachievement (UP), so that these students develop their linguistic as well as their writing competence (Rosino, 2009; Fidalgo et al., 2008; Villalobos, 2007; García, 2007; García

Teachers should be aware, through the studies that are currently available to them, of the key tools required for writing (processes, models, strategies, etc.), to be able to carry out the teaching of writing and thus help students acquire competence and fluidity at the lexical level, and progressively master the mechanisms of writing. Given that consolidating and becoming proficient in the orthographic system is a long process that demands a great deal of experience and practice, teachers must teach and encourage their students to self-regulate and control their word production. Thus, the common objective of teaching specific strategies is to assist students in becoming self-regulated learners, able to learn by themselves. One of these strategies, for example, is the revision process. Evidence shows that helping students increase the frequency and depth of their revision is a powerful strategy, allowing students the cognitive freedom to focus on the text and its correction

In addition, many theories on writing promote the idea that writers' attitudes are formed or developed partly through the use of writing instruments and claim that technological instruments can make the writing process easier as well as increasing motivation for students with LD. These theories maintain that both students and teachers feel the effects of the new means of writing. In the case of the students, these new writing methods are favored, in terms of the quality of the product and the aspects of the students' achievement, which can describe their own behavior. Teachers also report students' greater desire to use these instruments, a greater motivation to begin new projects and to produce greater amounts of written work. The reasons for greater enjoyment include the presentation of high quality work, the speed at which the work can be produced and the ease with which a

Other research has made interesting contributions to the principles that should be implemented both in order to prevent difficulties and to develop writing skills. Among these, we can emphasize the following : the provision of effective writing instruction; the preparation of instructions to detect each student's individual needs; early intervention to

Flórez & Monroy, 2008; Al-Weher, 2004; Taylor et al., 2002; Nkhoma, 2002).

& Rodriguez, 2007; García et al., 2006).

(Rosino, 2009; Perez, 2001; Chanquoy, 2001).

text can be organized and changed (Jiménez et al., 2003; Parr, 1994).

provide additional aid; the expectation that every student will learn to write; identifying and managing the academic barriers to writing; and, the use and development of technological instruments that improve writing execution. The most interesting point, according to the authors, is to look into how to reduce the children's difficulties in written composition and how the school and teachers can help these children with learning difficulties to improve their writing (Graham, 2006; Graham et al., 2001).

According to research, the writing education that many students receive is inadequate because it focuses almost exclusively on the teaching of lower level writing skills, such as calligraphy and spelling, with few opportunities to actually write. Other students are in classes with an increased frequency of writing tasks , but only a short amount of time is devoted to teaching the necessary writing skills and strategies, as it is assumed that these abilities can be acquired through informal and secondary methods of study. Other children attend schools where practically no time is devoted to ensure writing skills are obtained or to the teaching of writing. It is highly improbable that children with learning disabilities acquire the necessary knowledge in programs such as these (de Caso et al., 2011; Pacheco, 2010; García et al., 2009; Troia, 2006).

Most researchers believe the teaching of writing for these students should focus as much on prevention as on intervention; it should respond to the specific needs of each student; it should maintain a healthy balance between meaning, process, and form; and it should make as much use of formal methods of study as of informal methods. Designing instruction for the teacher as well as for the educational level is in itself not an easy task. However, it requires a coherent, coordinated, and extensive effort. The writing problems experienced by children with learning difficulties are not transitory difficulties that are eliminated easily, immediately or without establishing precise and effective practices (Graham, 2006; Troia, 2006; Villalobos, 2006; Graham et al., 2002; Graham et al., 2001). Based on the considerations addressed within this framework, in this research we propose, as a fundamental objective, to study written composition teaching practices in relation to the achievement of the students with and without LD and/or under achievement. Teachers' practice is thought to be based on their beliefs, attributions, expectations and the sense of personal efficacy that they hold with respect to the teaching-learning process. This is also closely related to students' achievements and the factors or components that modulate them (the students' motivation, the role that the parents or the family environment play in this process and the teacher's use of strategies, procedures and instruments in the area of writing or, in other curricular areas). Thus, the hypothesis supposes that the teachers' beliefs exert a strong influence on the practice of written composition and are predictive of students' success in the classroom. It is believed that this relationship varies depending on students' level of education and on the type of student.
