**1. Introduction**

128 Learning Disabilities

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In recent decades there has been a proliferation of studies on the empirical aspect of the family influence on school development of children, and trends have emerged which analyze the effects of household structural and dynamic variables on student learning (Xia, 2010). Results show that family socioeconomic level (Dearing, McCartney & Taylor, 2009; Gil, 2011, Liu & Lu, 2008; Park, 2008), its typology characteristics (Burnett & Farkas, 2008; Gennetian, 2005 ), a suitable home environment (Barkauskiene, 2009; Bodovski & Youn, 2010; Campbell & Berne, 2007; Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010; Khan, Haynes, Armstrong, & Ronher, 2010) and parents' positive outlook on education and their active involvement in it (Flouri & Buchanan, 2004; Phillipson, 2010; Powell, Son, File, & San Juan, 2010; Regner, Loose, & Dumas, 2009; Sirvani, 2007; Mo & Singh, 2008) are factors affecting the academic development of the vast majority of children. This influence is even more relevant for pupils with complex problems that can affect their ability to learn, such as specific learning disabilities (hereafter LD) or attention deficit disorder with/without hyperactivity (ADHD). Such pupils usually have special educational needs which require specific attention in all microenvironments in which education takes place, including the family (Snowling, Muter, & Carroll, 2007; Shur-Fen , 2007).

LD is a concept that encompasses a heterogeneous group of disorders that manifest in significant difficulties in understanding, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, and mathematical ability, presumably of biological origin and related to the functioning of the central nervous system (Kavale & Forness, 2000; Lerner & Kline, 2006). As for ADHD, it is a neuropsychological disorder that is characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that affects the social, academic and/or work life areas of the sufferer's life (Frazier, Youngstron , Glutimg, Watkins, & Marley, 2007; Jakobson & Kikas, 2007). Therefore, it is maintained that ADHD and LD are disorders of biologicalgenetic origin which are intrinsic to the individual. However, there has now been a shift in focus towards environmental variables, including the family, which are it is claimed can enhance or minimize the negative effects of these difficulties and, therefore, must be thoroughly examined and taken into consideration (Pheula, Rohde, & Schmitz, 2011; Snowling, et al. 2007; Shur-Fen, 2007).

The research available on learning and environmental conditions confirms the importance of adequate family functioning, as well as the existence of a satisfactory home environment to

The Family Environment of Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD 131

between families of children with LD or ADHD and children with standard performance (Rogers, Weiner, Marton, & Tannock, 2009; Sanchez García, Jara, & Cuartero, 2011), the majority indicate that most households of pupils with problems focus on enhancing the personal growth of family members and provide more stimulation and support for academic tasks (Huston & Rosenkrantz, 2005). In the latter cases, however, some studies indicate that helping children excessively on a daily basis can relate to high levels of parental protection (Tarleton & Ward, 2005), which, coupled with inadequate management of conflict of school issues contributes to parents developing parental anxiety and dissatisfaction. This in turn affects parents' ability to interact sensitively regarding the demands of the child and can lead to developing an intrusive and ineffective educational collaboration (Hedor, Anneren, & Wikblad, 2002). Whatever the case, it is necessary to

further study this aspect, as the specific findings for LD and ADHD are not yet final.

learning for children with LD or ADHD (Jordan & Levine, 2009; Xia, 2010).

precisely the purpose of the present study.

in some groups than others.

**2. Methodology 2.1 Participants** 

families .

standard academic performance (normal achievement, NA).

Finally, structural elements such as low family income, parents' low level of education or a high number of siblings are risk factors for school failure (James, 2004; Marks, 2006). Some studies have shown that pupils with LD or ADHD disproportionately come from poor family backgrounds who do not support their education (Rydell, 2010), although more research is needed to enable a full understanding of these environmental influences on

In summary, to this day the real impact of each family contextual factor on the academic performance of children with LD or ADHD remains unknown. In addition, the existing studies present some limitations related to the samples, due to only with involving a parent or child, or the use of subjective assessment instruments (Antshel & Joseph, 2006; Murray & Greenberg, 2006; Smith & Adams, 2006, Trainor 2005). Therefore, there is a need for new studies that overcome these limitations and shed light on such a seldom studied field as the relationship of family and academic development of pupils to LD or ADHD. This is

The first objective of this study is to analyze the differences in family dynamics and structural variables in relation to the pupil's typological characteristics. To do this we compare families in which there are children with LD or ADHD and families of pupils with

The second objective is to compare the parents' views versus the children's views in each of the experimental groups (families of pupils with LD with ADHD or NA) to identify whether the perceptions of environmental variables differ from parent to child and if they do so more

Participants were 87 families of pupils enrolled in four Spanish private and state schools. This sample was drawn from a larger sample of 610 families studied. The selection process consisted of us looking at the smallest group (ADHD, n = 29) and then selecting and additional 29 cases of families of pupils with LD and 29 families of children with NA, taking several criteria into account, regarding the characteristics of the children and their

the children's correct academic development (Barkauskiene, 2009; Campbell & Verna, 2007). Specifically, studies suggest that pupils whose families help them and functionally interact with them, use effective educational styles and where there are few arguments and low levels of stress, do better at school and learn more easily (Bodovski & Youn, 2010; Guoliang, Zhang , & Yan, 2005; Halawah, 2006; Heiman, Zinck, & Heath, 2008). However, in troubled or dysfunctional families subjects receive fewer stimulation and of lower quality, and their academic development is therefore slower (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010; Sheppard, 2005). These factors can also be risk factors present in homes where there are children with LD or ADHD (Dyson, 2010; Foley, 2011). Usually in these pupils' homes there is a level of stress which impairs family functioning and the development of the person with the problem (Biederman et al. 1996; Hishinuma, 2000; O'Connor, McConkey, & Hartop, 2005; Strnadová, 2006, Trainor 2005). Additionally, parents' educational styles tend to be very directive and very ineffective (Johnston & Mash, 2001; Presentation, Pinto, Melia, & Miranda, 2009; Schroeder & Kelley, 2009). However, results are inconclusive. Some studies even fail to find a difference in the climate of families of children with LD and families of pupils without disabilities (Dyson, 2010; Heiman & Berger, 2008). Therefore, it is necessary to undertake further studies in this area.

Other factors that influence children's learning are attitudes, perceptions and parental expectations regarding their academic performance. Apparently, parents' positive attitude towards their children and family support increase pupils' confidence in their abilities and awakens the child's interest in satisfying and meeting parents' expectations (Campbell & Verna, 2007; Figuera, Daria, & Forner, 2003). However, in families where there are children with deficits parents' negative attitudes towards their children tend to predominate. In such families there is usually fewer expression of feelings and emotions, and adults tend to provide negative feedback to their children on their behavior and ability, criticize them or underestimate their abilities, and show pessimistic expectations about their academic future (Dyson, 2010; Goldstein, Harvey, & Friedman, 2007; Stoll, 2000). These behaviors may help the child forge a negative self-image, thereby damaging the development of her/his personality (Taylor, Chadwick, Heptinstall, & Danckaerts, 1996). Given the importance of these elements, further studies are needed to verify these facts in the cases of LD and ADHD.

Another important aspect for pupils' academic success is the cooperation between their families and schools (Powell, et al., 2010). In this regard, it has been shown that parental involvement in education stimulates pupils' motivation toward academic work, their commitment to school and their perception of competence, control and efficiency (González, Willems, & Doan, 2005; Urdan, Solek, Schoenfelder, & 2007; Mo & Singh, 2008). Thus, parental involvement promotes children's proper academic development in general and is therefore of special interest in the case of LD or ADHD. In these cases, coordinated academic support between family and school, and an adequate level of family collaboration on academic work are factors that promote optimal learning (Martinez & Alvarez, 2005). In this case, there is also a degree of correlation between parental satisfaction and educational involvement (Gershwin, Singer, & Draper, 2008; Seitsinger, Felner, Brand, & Burns, 2008; Spann, Kohler, & Soenksen, 2003). It is, however, necessary to continue to analyze these interactions in the case of LD and ADHD.

There are some important controversies in research findings regarding the parents' offer of stimulating learning environments at home. While some studies found no difference between families of children with LD or ADHD and children with standard performance (Rogers, Weiner, Marton, & Tannock, 2009; Sanchez García, Jara, & Cuartero, 2011), the majority indicate that most households of pupils with problems focus on enhancing the personal growth of family members and provide more stimulation and support for academic tasks (Huston & Rosenkrantz, 2005). In the latter cases, however, some studies indicate that helping children excessively on a daily basis can relate to high levels of parental protection (Tarleton & Ward, 2005), which, coupled with inadequate management of conflict of school issues contributes to parents developing parental anxiety and dissatisfaction. This in turn affects parents' ability to interact sensitively regarding the demands of the child and can lead to developing an intrusive and ineffective educational collaboration (Hedor, Anneren, & Wikblad, 2002). Whatever the case, it is necessary to further study this aspect, as the specific findings for LD and ADHD are not yet final.

Finally, structural elements such as low family income, parents' low level of education or a high number of siblings are risk factors for school failure (James, 2004; Marks, 2006). Some studies have shown that pupils with LD or ADHD disproportionately come from poor family backgrounds who do not support their education (Rydell, 2010), although more research is needed to enable a full understanding of these environmental influences on learning for children with LD or ADHD (Jordan & Levine, 2009; Xia, 2010).

In summary, to this day the real impact of each family contextual factor on the academic performance of children with LD or ADHD remains unknown. In addition, the existing studies present some limitations related to the samples, due to only with involving a parent or child, or the use of subjective assessment instruments (Antshel & Joseph, 2006; Murray & Greenberg, 2006; Smith & Adams, 2006, Trainor 2005). Therefore, there is a need for new studies that overcome these limitations and shed light on such a seldom studied field as the relationship of family and academic development of pupils to LD or ADHD. This is precisely the purpose of the present study.

The first objective of this study is to analyze the differences in family dynamics and structural variables in relation to the pupil's typological characteristics. To do this we compare families in which there are children with LD or ADHD and families of pupils with standard academic performance (normal achievement, NA).

The second objective is to compare the parents' views versus the children's views in each of the experimental groups (families of pupils with LD with ADHD or NA) to identify whether the perceptions of environmental variables differ from parent to child and if they do so more in some groups than others.
