**11. References**

Alton,, G. (2001). The History of Special Education in America. Demand Media, Inc. USA


**1**

**1. Introduction** 

education.

**2** 

*USA* 

Bob Algozzine1, Erik Porfeli2,

*1Behavior and Reading Improvement Center, University of North Carolina, Charlotte,* 

*4University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill,* 

*University of North Carolina, Charlotte* 

*2Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine,* 

*5Department of Reading and Elementary Education,* 

**Achievement Gaps: Learning Disabilities,** 

*3Department of Educational Leadership, University of North Carolina, Charlotte,* 

A fundamental defining characteristic of students with learning disabilities (LD) is a difference between expected and actual achievement in one or more academic areas (Cortiella, 2009). In identifying these students, professionals document that disabilities related to vision, hearing, or physical impairments, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, and environmental, cultural, and economic disadvantage are not the primary cause of the underachievement (Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities, 1987; U. S. Office of Education, 1977). While this distinguishing feature has been widely accepted, it has not been easily implemented. For example, after 5 years of research on decision making in schools, Ysseldyke et al. (1983) concluded that "there currently is no defensible system for declaring students eligible for LD services;" and, among the problem facing professionals when identifying students in need of special education services was the consistent finding of "no reliable psychometric differences between students labeled (with LD) and those simply considered low achievers" (p. 79, 80). Of course, addressing differences and gaps in achievement across groups of students is not new in America

Racial diversity has been a concern in America's schools for many years. Dunn (1968) focused attention on what has become known as the disproportionality problem evident in the over-representation of children from diverse ethnic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds in special education. Once the alarm was sounded, disparities of placement and performance were widely and continuously documented (cf. Blanchett, Mumford, & Beachum, 2005; Donovan & Cross, 2002; *Educational Researcher*, 2006; Harry & Klingner,

\* Portions of this chapter are from the authors' previously published or to be published work.

Chuang Wang3, Ann McColl4 and Robert Audette5

**Community Capital, and School Composition\***

