**2. Method**

220 Learning Disabilities

regular clinics. These tests are performed only when the child presents with an obvious

From the other side vision plays an important role in motor skill performance as vision guides and controls the acquisition, differentiation and automatization of motor skills (Brambring, as cited in Houwen et al., 2009). Functions of visions in motor skill acquisition are (a) incentive function - to motivate children to move, (b) spatial function - to provide information about distance and direction of movements and objects, (c) protective function to anticipate dangerous situations, and (d) controlling/feedback function - to detect errors and correct the ongoing movement by online regulation of the movement. Furthermore, vision enables children to imitate movements made by others (Brambring, 2006, as cited in Houwen et al., 2009b, pp. 465). The objective of Taylor Kulp's (1999) study was to examine the relationship between visual motor integration skill and academic performance in kindergarten through to third grade. The children's regular classroom teachers rated the children with respect to reading, math and writing ability. Second and third grade children were also rated on spelling ability. They found that performance on a visual analysis and visual motor integration task is significantly related to academic performance in 7, 8 (reading, writing and math achievement ratings) and 9 year olds (writing, spelling and math achievement ratings). Performance on the visual motor integration was found to be significantly related to teachers' ratings of the children's reading, math, writing and spelling

The visual control is necessary for all targeted movements in the function of their correction. The children with visual impairment at the earliest age have badly expressed and incoordinated movements of hands, they are passive and show a low curiosity for the objects in their surroundings. As we could read, there are a lot of studies that are related to the motor skill performances of children and adolescents with visual impairment. Jablan (2003), examined the motor skill development quality of elementary-school age children with severely visually impairment. It was found that 55.8% of children had harmonious development of motor functions. The most difficulties were found within melokinetic praxia and the coordination of bi-manual activities. Houwen et al. (2009a) examined the physical activity levels of children with and without visual impairments. It was further investigated whether the degree of visual impairments was associated with activity level, whether body composition was associated with activity level and whether interrelationships existed between activity level and motor skill performance. All participated children (96) were ages 6 to 12 years and attended mainstream schools. It was found that total activity was significantly higher in children without visual impairment than in children with visual impairment. Participation in moderate to vigorous physical activity was significantly higher in children without visual impairments versus children with visual impairments. Light activity was positively associated with locomotor scores; total activity and moderate to vigorous physical activity were positively associated with object control scores. For children without visual impairments, total activity and time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity were positively associated with locomotor scores and time spent in sedentary activity was inversely associated with object control scores. The authors concluded that the results of their research emphasize the importance of promoting an active lifestyle in children. Special attention has to be paid to children with lower visual acuities and children with higher body mass index. From the other side, the research conducted by Norris, Spaulding and Brodie (1957) (as cited in Garet & Levin, 1970) indicates that the development

deficit (Omondi et al., 2007 as cited in Rajendran & Roy, 2011).

ability.

The aim of this research is to establish the prevalence, form and the quality of motor skill performance in children with sensor impairment. The research results will focus on two groups of school aged children: children with visual impairment and children with hearing impairment. First, the findings on variables associated with prevalence, form, level of motor disorders and quality of motor skill performances are analyzed in each group of children. "*Motor skill performance* is a broad term which is defined as the observable act of movement and task characteristics (Hutzler, 2007; Newell, 1986; Shumway-Cook & Wollacott, 2001; Warren, 1994; WHO, 2001, as cited in Houwen et al., 2009b). *Motor skills* are acts or tasks dependent on practice and experience for their execution (Payne & Isaacs, 2002, as cited in Houwen et al., 2009b). In the purest sense, the term motor refers to underlying biological and mechanical factors that influence movement (or observable action), however, the terms movement and motor are frequently use interchangeably (Gabbard, 2007; Sherill 2004, as cited in Houven et al., 2009b, pp. 467)".

Motor Skill Performance of Children with Sensor Impairments 223

hearing impairment have some delays in motor development and lower results in motor skill performances scores in relation to children without any impairment. It was challenging to compare the motor skill performance of the two, considering the type of sensor impairment and different groups of children, although there are not a lot of studies that compared variables, such are neuromaturation, lateralization or coordination between those

In that way this research can contribute in enabling differentiated diagnostic criteria for establishing the level and the quality of motor skill performance, prevalence and of the form of the manifestation of motor skill performance disorders in pupils with sensory impairment. The main idea was to point to the importance of including assessment of motor skill performance in routine screening of children with sensor impairment. Second, the results of this research can give implications for therapeutic approaches related to improvement of motor skill performance. Third, the results of this research can contribute in

The 73 pupils were children with different degrees of hearing impairment (HI) and 83 were children with different degrees of visual impairment (VI). The group of children with visual impairments consisted of two subgroups: children with blindness whose range of vision ranges from 0.02 to a complete absence of quantitative and qualitative vision, and children with low vision, whose range of vision ranges from 0.3 to 0.05. The sample is a balanced representation of the children with blindness (41.94%) and low vision (48.38%). The group of children with hearing impairments consisted of children whose level of hearing loss ranged from 45-59dB (ASA) or 56-70 dB (ISO) of them 17.73%, then 25.32% of children with hearing impairments whose level of hearing loss ranged from 60-70 dB (ASA) or 71-90 dB (ISO) and 56.95% of children with very hard hearing impairments (80 dB and more (ASA) ili 91 dB and

According to psychological documentation, all children were of average intelligence. All children were between 7 and 14 years of age. The distribution of the total sample according to gender is equal (boys 53.2% and girls 46.8%) and does not show a statistically significant

All children attended schools for education children with visual/or hearing impairment

The main criterion for the selection of test materials was that the methods used had to be appropriate for testing children of middle childhood age (psychological/pedagogical periodization of children's development) and to evaluate the most important functions for this period of life: neuromaturational maturity (a symptom of synkinesia, diadochokinesia

2 This paper shows an empiric segment of the macro-project "Phenomenology of Developmental Disturbances and Disorders", which was realized at the Faculty for Special Education and Rehabilitation, University of Belgrade, and approved by the Ministry of Science and Technology of

difference (Pearson's R: Value ,022; Approx. T (b), 268; Approx. Sig. ,789(c)).

(special schools) in Belgrade, Republic of Serbia.

Republic of Serbia (number of license: MNTR 1611).

two groups of children with sensory impairment.

**2.1 Sample characteristics** 

more (ISO))2.

**2.2 Material** 

creating sports activities for children with sensor impairment.

The quality of motor skill performance, in this research, is analyzed in three areas of motor functioning: neuromaturation, coordination and balance. The study provides data on interaction between: (1) motor skill performance and visual or hearing impairment (between groups and single analysis). Findings are compared with the aim of establishing if there is strong evidence for or against the effect of visual or hearing impairment on motor skill performance; (2) motor skill performance of children with visual impairment, as much as motor skill performance of children with hearing impairment, with the aim of establishing if there is a similarity or some kind of pathway which can help professionals in creating rehabilitation programmes, as much as programmes for adaptive physical education; (3) motor skill performance and common child variables, such are gender and age. Gender differences in motor skill performance for children and adolescents in general may exist because of differences in body composition during growth and maturation, and social influences regarding physical activity. Generally, the magnitude of differences in motor performance between boys and girls is low to moderate during childhood, and girls are low to moderate during childhood, but this changes quite markedly after puberty when boys tend to outperform girls (Thomas & French, 1985, as cited in Houwen et al., 2009b); (4) the previous findings of the authors Nikolić, Ilić-Stošović (2009) that are related to motor skill performance of children with typical development are examined in all three groups with the aim of establishing differences or a similarity in prevalence and structure of motor skill performance.

Why did we decide to do such a study? Sensor integration is essential for obtaining a complete experience of phenomena and activities that surround us. It is basic for mostly learning situations. Sensor integration, thus integration of auditive and visual information, is basic for creating, defining and interpretation of terms. Disabilities in this area may influence development of all academic skills, and also other skills, especially motor skill. From the other side, integration of perception and motor activities primarily is related to visual-motor coordination and audio-motor integration. Visual-motor integration implies ability of visual and motor coordination. Difficulties in this area, potentially, can disturb all areas of a child's life: social, academic, sports and practical. The child, because of lack of visual control of motor activity, organises its movement in space and time inadequately. Audio-motor integration includes compliance of motor activities with verbal and non-verbal stimulus, such as melody, rhythm etc.. Spurious capacitance response in this area can be directly reflected in the development of academic skills (Gligorović et al., 2010). The situation becomes more complicated if a child is born with sensor impairment, or during early development copes with sensor impairment. What than happens with motor skill development and performance? Is it possible, although both with sensor, but one group with visual and the other with hearing impairment, that there are some similarities? This was a question that we tried to answer through our research.

The truth is that there are a lot of studies that are related to motor skill performance of children with visual impairment and a lot of articles with the studies that are related to balance disorders and motor outcomes of children with hearing impairment. Also, many of those studies compared the motor skill performance of children with visual or hearing impairment and children with typical development. But there are only a small number of studies that examined motor skill performances (not only balance) in children with hearing impairment, in spite of some evidences (see in Vujasinović, 1997; Narančić, 1997; Butterfield, 1986; Rine et al., 2000; Kohen-Raz & Masalha, 1988; Hartman et al., 2011) that children with hearing impairment have some delays in motor development and lower results in motor skill performances scores in relation to children without any impairment. It was challenging to compare the motor skill performance of the two, considering the type of sensor impairment and different groups of children, although there are not a lot of studies that compared variables, such are neuromaturation, lateralization or coordination between those two groups of children with sensory impairment.

In that way this research can contribute in enabling differentiated diagnostic criteria for establishing the level and the quality of motor skill performance, prevalence and of the form of the manifestation of motor skill performance disorders in pupils with sensory impairment. The main idea was to point to the importance of including assessment of motor skill performance in routine screening of children with sensor impairment. Second, the results of this research can give implications for therapeutic approaches related to improvement of motor skill performance. Third, the results of this research can contribute in creating sports activities for children with sensor impairment.
