**5. Acknowledgments**

During this research study, we received competitive funds from the Spanish Ministry of Education, Science and Innovation (MICINN) (EDU2010-19250 / EDUC) for 2010-2013, and Excellence Research Group funds from the Junta de Castilla y León (GR259), with FEDER funds from the European Union for 2009-2010-2011 (BOCyL 27 on April 2009). Both were awarded to the Director/Main Researcher (J. N. García). We are very grateful to Victoria Rosa Sturley for her help with the English version.

*Correspondence* should be addressed to Departamento de Psicología, Sociología y Filosofía. Área Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación. Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071 – León, Spain. Phone: +34-987291041 (university); +34-987222118 (home); +34-652817871 (cell); Fax: +34-987291035 (university). E-mail: jn.garcia@unileon.es.

#### **6. References**

142 Learning Disabilities

better performance of children without problems and be a risk factor in the case of pupils

When we examined *expectations* regarding the academic future of children, we found that pupils whose parents are more optimistic about them, NA group parents, show better academic performance (Fang, & Sen, 2006; Neuenschwander, Life, Garrett, & Eccles, 2007; Rubie-Davies, Peterson, Irving, Widdowson, & Dixon, 2010). In addition, the high expectations of parents of NA children were projected on the pupils themselves, who were also the most optimistic about their academic future. It is possible that pupils with problems, as well as being aware of their difficulties, perceive their parents really low aspirations and

Finally, in response to *parental satisfaction with teachers* and based on the results, we can confirm that parents of NA children, as opposed to mainly those of children with ADHD, are those that show higher patterns of satisfaction. The fact that the educational needs of children with standardized performance are not significant and that they demand less attention, possibly means that teachers' performance is appropriate to them and therefore parents are satisfied in this regard (Gershwin et al., 2008). As for parents of children with LD, as we have seen, results indicate that the pattern of satisfaction is quite similar to that of parents of NA children. Possibly, the lack of a clear diagnosis and treatment of LD at the time of the study, made the parents of these pupils unaware that their children had significant learning problems, which is one of the reasons that could explain the level of overall satisfaction. Nevertheless, compared to the NA group, these parents identified a shortage of professional competence of teachers as well as a considerable lack of interest in

In short, this study confirms a trend indicating that contextual family elements are the most affected, and shows characteristics that are less favorable for learning in families in which children have ADHD or LD. These contextual elements emerge as potential risk factors to control. Therefore, these variables require greater empirical attention in the immediate future, in order to provide comprehensive treatment optimized for these pupils and their families. Similarly, we confirmed that the way family life is perceived is not the same for parents as for children, thus providing an overview of the specific needs of each family member, which may facilitate the establishment of specific interventions adapted to each

During this research study, we received competitive funds from the Spanish Ministry of Education, Science and Innovation (MICINN) (EDU2010-19250 / EDUC) for 2010-2013, and Excellence Research Group funds from the Junta de Castilla y León (GR259), with FEDER funds from the European Union for 2009-2010-2011 (BOCyL 27 on April 2009). Both were awarded to the Director/Main Researcher (J. N. García). We are very grateful to Victoria

*Correspondence* should be addressed to Departamento de Psicología, Sociología y Filosofía. Área Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación. Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071 – León, Spain. Phone: +34-987291041 (university); +34-987222118 (home); +34-652817871 (cell); Fax:

therefore express less favorable opinions about their own academic performance.

with LD.

their children's learning.

particular case.

**5. Acknowledgments** 

Rosa Sturley for her help with the English version.

+34-987291035 (university). E-mail: jn.garcia@unileon.es.


The Family Environment of Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD 145

Heiman, T., Zinck, L., & Heath, N. (2008). Parents and youth with learning disabilities.

Hishinuma, S. (2000). Parent attitudes on the importance and success of integrated self-

Jakobson, A., & Kikas, E. (2007). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder with and without comorbid learning disabilities. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*, *40*(3), 194-202. James, H. (2004). Promoting effective working with parents with learning disabilities. *Child* 

Johnston, C., & Mash, E. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity

Jordan, N., & Levine, S. (2009). Socioeconomic variation, number competence and

Karende, S., Mehta, V., & Kulkarni, M. (2007). Impact of an education program on parental

Kavale, K. A., & Forness, S. R. (2000). What definitions of learning disability say and don't

Kay, P. J., & Fitzgerald, M. (1994). Making homework work at home: The parent's

Keown, L. J., & Woodward, L. J. (2002). Early parent–child relations and family functioning

Khan, S., Haynes, L., Armstrong, A., & Rohner, R. (2010). Perceived teacher acceptance,

Knollmann, M., & Wild, E. (2007). Quality of parental support and students´ emotions

Lerner, J., & Kline, F. (2006). *Learning disabilities and related disorders. Characteristics and* 

Lifford, K., Harold, G., & Thapar, A. (2008). Parent-child relationship and ADHD symptoms: a longitudinal analysis. *Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,36*, 285-296. Lyytinen, P., Eklund, K., & Lyytinen, H. (2005). Language development and literacy skills in

Marks, G. (2006). Family size, family type and student achievement: cross-national

Mason, A., & Mason, M. (2005). University students with learning disabilities. *Pediatric* 

*Clinics of North America, 52*, 61-70. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2004.11.001

say. A critical analysis. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33,* 239-256.

perspective. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*, 27(9), 550-561.

*European Journal of Psychology of Education, 22*(1), 63-76

*teaching strategies.* Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

524-534. doi 10.1177/0022219408317860

*22*(4), 241-263.

*Abuse Review*, 13, 31–41.

*Research, 15,* 60-68.

*Psychology, 30*, 541−553.

*Research, 44*(3), 283-294.

*55*(2), 166-192.

*Family Studies, 37*(1), 1-24.

398-406.

*Psychology Review, 4*(3), 183-207

Perceptions of relationship and communication. *Journal of Learning Disabilities,41*(6),

contained services for students who are gifted, LD, and gifted/LD. *Roeper Review*,

disorder: review and recommendations for future research. *Clinical Child and Family* 

mathematics learning difficulties in young children. *Developmental Disabilities* 

knowledge of specific learning disability*. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences, 61*(7),

of preschool boys with pervasive hyperactivity. *Journal of Abnormal Child* 

parental acceptance, academic achievement, and school conduct of middle school students in the Mississippi Delta region of the United States. *Cross-Cultural* 

during homework: moderating effects of students´ motivation orientations.

late-talking toddlers with and without familiar risk of dyslexia. *Annals of Dyslexia,* 

differences and the role of socioeconomic and school factors. *Journal of Comparative* 


Fang, W., & Sen, Q. (2006). Longitudinal effects of parenting on children´s academic

Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2004). Early father's and mother's involvement and child's later educational outcomes. *British Journal of Educational Psychology*,*74*,141–153. Foley, M. (2011). A comparison of family adversity and family dysfunction in families of

Frazier, T., Youngstron, E., Glutimg, E., Watkins, J., & Marley, W. (2007). ADHD and

Gennetian, L. (2005). One or two parents? Half or step siblings? The effect of family

Gershwin, T., Singer, G., & Draper, L. (2008). Reducing parental dissatisfaction with special

Gil, J. (2011). Estatus socioeconómico de las familias y resultados educativos logrados por el

Goldstein, L., Harvey, E., & Friedman, J. (2007). Examining subtypes of behavior problems

Guoliang,Y., Zhang, Y., & Yan, R. (2005). Loneliness, peer acceptance and family functioning

Halawah, I. (2006). The effect of motivation, family environment, and student characteristics on academic achievement. *Journal of Instructional Psychology, 33*(2), 91-99. Hedor, G. Annerén, G., & Wikblad, K. (2002). Swedish parents of children with Down´s

Hegarty, S. (2008). Investigación sobre educación especial en Europa [Study of Special

Heiman, T., & Berger, O. (2008). Parents of children with Asperger syndrome or with

syndrome. *Scandinavian Journal of caring sciences, 16*, 424-430.

and parenting stress. *Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35*, 125-136. González, A., Willems, P., & Doan, M. (2005). Examining the relationship between parental involvement and student motivation. *Educational Psychological Review*, 17, 50-67. Gortmaker, V., Daly, E., McCurdy, M., Persampieri, M., & Hergenrader, M. (2007).

doi:10.1111/j.1744-6155.2010.00269.x)

436. doi: 10.1007/s00148-004-0215-0

*Cultura y educación, 23*(1), 141-154.

*Psychology in the Schools, 42*(3), 325-331.

*Cambio en Educación, 6*(2), 191-199.

*Developmental Disabilities, 29,* 289-300.

*Behavior, 40*(2), 203-221.

*Adolescence,39*(1), 23-35. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9360-1

achievement in african american families. *Journal of Negro Education*, *75*(3), 415-429.

children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and families of children without ADHD. *Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing*, *16*(1), 39-49.

achievement: meta-analysis of the child, adolescent and adult literatures and a concomitant study with college students. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40*(1), 49-65.

structure on young children´s achievement. *Journal of Population Economics, 18,* 415-

education in two school districts: implementing conflict prevention and alternative dispute resolution. *Journal Educational and Psychological Consultation, 18*, 191-233. Ghazarian, S., & Buehler, C. (2010). Interparental conflict and academic achievement: an

examination of mediating and moderating factors. *Journal of Youth and* 

alumnado [Families' socioeconomic status and students' educational outcomes].

among 3 year-old children. Part III: investigating differences in parenting practices

Improving reading outcomes for children with learning disabilities: using brief experimental analysis to develop parent-tutoring interventions. *Journal of Applied* 

of chinese children with learning disabilities: characteristics and relationship.

Education in Europe]. *Revista Electrónica Iberoamericana sobre Calidad Eficacia y* 

learning disabilities: family environment and social support. *Research in* 


The Family Environment of Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD 147

Robledo, P. & García, J. (en prensa). Instrumento de evaluación del entorno familiar. Versión

para hijos: Opiniones familiares: hijos, FAOP-HI. [Family environment assessment tool. Vesion for children: Family opinions: children, FAOP-HI] En J.N. García (Coord.), *Dificultades de aprendizaje y trastornos del desarrollo*. Madrid: Pirámide. Robledo, P., & García, J. (2007). Instrumento de evaluación de las necesidades de las familias

con hijos con dificultades del desarrollo: FAOP. [Needs assessment tool for families with children with development disabilities: FAOP] En J.N. García, (Coord.), *Dificultades del desarrollo: evaluación e intervención* (CD-ROM)*.* Madrid. Pirámide. Rogers, M., Wiener, J., Marton, I., & Tannock, R.(2009). Parental involvement in children's

learning: Comparing parents of children with and without Attentiondeficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). *Journal of School Psychology*, 47, 167–185. Rolfsen, A., & Martínez, C. (2008). Programa de intervençao para país de crianças com

dificultades de aprendizagem: un estudo preliminar. [Intervention program for children with learning disabilities: a preliminary study] *Paidéia, 18*(39), 175-188. Rubie-Davies, C. M., Peterson, E., Irving, E., Widdowson, D., & Dixon, R. (2010).

Expectations of achievement, teacher and parent perceptions. *Research in Education*,

functioning. *Dissertation Abstracts International: section B: The Sciences and* 

links between demographic characteristics, negative life events and symptoms of ODD and ADHD. *Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology*, 4*5*(2), 233-244.

implicación escolar y de las expectativa académicas y profesionales de sus hijos [Parents assessment of school involvement and the academic and professional expectations on their children]. En J.M. Román, M.A. Carbonero, & J.D. Valdivieso (Comp.), *Educación, aprendizaje y desarrollo en una sociedad multicultural* (pp. 9185- 9194). Madrid: Ediciones de la Asociación Nacional de Psicología y Educación

practices, and executive functioning of children with and without ADHD. *Journal* 

nature and efficacy of teachers´ practices to engage parents: assessment, parental contact, and student-level impact. *Journal of School Psychology, 46*, 477-

Developmental dyscalculia is a familial learning disability. *Journal of Learning* 

early externalizing problems among children from low-income families: a transformational perspective. *Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26,* 95-107. Sheppard, A. (2005). Development of school attendance difficulties: an exploratory study.

Ryan, E.E. (2002). AD/HD symptoms in parents of children with AD/HD: Impact on family

Rydell, A. (2010). Family factors and children's disruptive behaviour: an investigation of

Sánchez, D., García, R., Jara, P., & Cuartero, T. (2011). Valoración de los padres acerca de la

Schroeder, V., & Kelley, M. (2009). Associations between family environment, parenting

Seitsinger, A., Felner, R., Brand, S., & Burns, A. (2008). A large-scale examination of the

Shalev, R., Manor, O., Kerem, B., Ayali, M., Badichi, N., Friedlander, Y., & Gross, V. (2001).

Shaw, D., Winslow, E., Owens, E., Vondra, J., Cohn, J., & Bell, R. (1998). The development of

(83), 36-53. Retrieved from EBSCO*host*.

*Engineering,* 63 (4-B), 2072.

doi:10.1007/s00127-009-0060-2

(ISBN 978-84-614-8296-2)

*Child Family Studies, 18*, 227-235.

505.doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2007.11.001

*Pastoral Care in Education, 23* (3), 19-26.

*Disabilities, 34*(1), 59-65.


Mautone, J. A., Lefler, E. K., & Power, T. J. (2011). Promoting family and school success for

Mo, Y., & Singh, K. (2008). Parents' relationships and involvement: effects on students'

Monuteaux, M., Faraone, S., Herzig, K., Navsaria, N., & Biederman, J. (2005). ADHD and

Murray, C., & Greenberg, M. (2006). Examining the importance of social relationship and

Murris, P., Meesters, C., & Van der Berg, S. (2003). Internalizing and externalizing problems

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (1997). Operationalizing the NJCLD

Neuenschwander, M. P., Vida, M., Garrett, J. L., & Eccles, J. S. (2007). Parents' expectations

O'Connor, U., McConkey, R., & Hartop, B. (2005). Parental views on the statutory

Park, H. (2008). Home literacy environment and children´s reading performance: a comparative study of 25 countries. *Educational Research Evaluation,14*, 489-505 Pheula, G., Rohde, L., & Schmitz, M. (2011). Are family variables associated with ADHD,

Phillipson, S. (2010). Modeling parental role in academic achievement: comparing high-

Polloway, E., Bursuck, W., & Epstein, M. (2001). Homework for students with learning

Pomerantz, E., Wang, Q., & Fei-Yin, F. ( 2005). Mothers' affect in the homework context: the

Powell, D., Son, S., File, N., & San Juan, R. (2010). Parent-school relationships and children's

Presentación, M., Pinto, V., Meliá, A., & Miranda, A. (2009). Efectos sobre el contexto

normal adolescents. *Journal of Child and Family Studies, 12*, 171-183.

*Development*, 31(6), 594-602. doi:10.1 177/0115025407080589

*European Journal of Special Needs Education*, *20*(3), 250-270.

*Psychiatry*, *20*(3), 137-145. doi:10.1007/s00787-011-0158-4

*The International Dyslexia Association, 23*(4), 29-33.

*Practice*, *50*(1), 43-51. doi:10.1080/00405841.2010.534937

31(10), 1-11

83-103.

*Quarterly, 17*, 181-187.

10.1037/0012-1649.41.2.414

*Psychology, 48*(4), 269-292.

ADHD]. *Escritos de Psicología, 2*(3), 18-26.

*Disabilities, 38*(1), 86-93.

*Special Education, 39*(4), 220-233.

children with adhd: strengthening relationships while building skills. *Theory Into* 

school engagement and performance. *Research in Middle Level Education Online,* 

dyscalculia: evidence for independent familial transmission. *Journal of Learning* 

social context in the lives of children with high-incidence disabilities. *The Journal of* 

as correlates of self-reported attachment style and perceived parental rearing in

definition of learning disabilities for ongoing assessment in schools. *Perspectives:* 

and students' achievement in two western nations. *International Journal of Behavioral* 

assessment and educational planning for children with special educational needs.

inattentive type? A case-control study in schools. *European Child & Adolescent* 

ability to low and average ability students. *Talent Development and Excellence, 2*(1),

disabilities: the challenge of home-school communication. *Reading and Writing* 

importance of staying positive. *Developmental Psychology, 41*(2), 414-427. doi:

academic and social outcomes in public school pre-kindergarten. *Journal of School* 

familiar de una intervención psicosocial compleja en niños con TDAH [Effects on the family context of a complex psychosocial intervention for children with


**9** 

*Japan* 

Manabu Sumida

*Ehime University, Faculty of Education* 

**Meeting the Needs of Twice-Exceptional** 

Since 2007, special needs education in Japan, in addition to the disabilities targeted in special education in the past - such as visual disorders, hearing disorders, intellectual disabilities, physical handicaps, health impairments, speech disorders, and emotional disturbances – also encompasses Learning Disabilities (LD), Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and High-functioning Autism (HA) and Asperger's syndrome. These are considered to be mild developmental disorders in Japan. In the survey results of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in 2002, teaching staff noted pronounced difficulties in learning and/or behavioural problems in 6.3% of students in public primary schools (MEXT, 2003). Based on responses to each item in the survey, it is estimated that 4.5% of these students may have LD, 2.5% may have ADHD, and 0.8% may have HA (Japan Association of the Special Educational Needs Specialist,

Children screened for disorders are sometimes identified as having gifted characteristics. Children screened for their giftedness are sometimes identified as having academic or behavioural disorders. Regardless of the order in which they are screened, identified children can have the combined characteristic of both giftedness and developmental disorders (e.g. Baum, 2004; Cooper et al., 2005; Weinfeld, Barnes-Robinson, Jeweler, & Shevitz, 2006). "Twice-exceptionality" (heretofore referred to as 2E) is the term used for someone who is gifted or talented and at the same time has one or more learning difficulties or disabilities (Buttriss & Callander, 2005). It is evident in the extant literature that few conceptual or practical studies, which focus on the gifted traits that the majority of these

The criteria for gifted identification are usually domain-independent, such as IQ, creativity, and leadership. However there are many good science programmes for the gifted. Sumida (2010) noticed four reasons why 2E children are adept at learning science. These are (1) the domain-specific, dynamic nature of science, which encompasses a wealth of different fields of study, can accommodate children's varied areas of interest; (2) hands-on activities in science learning can promote creative ideas and lead to a persistence in children that often surpasses their teachers' expectations; (3) an integrated scientific approach will be beneficial in that the children's dominant strengths can be reinforced and developed in a broader

children possess, have been conducted in a specific subject area in detail.

**1. Introduction** 

2007).

**Children in the Science Classroom** 

