**3. Results**

In order to address our first objective (typology) we considered the type of pupil (LD, NA and ADHD) as a fixed factor, addressing the family's opinion as a whole, based on the

The Family Environment of Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD 137

When collating the post hoc contrasts we detected statistically significant differences in the perceptions of families whose children have problems vis-à-vis families of NA pupils in: expressiveness (LD vs. NA, p = .089; TDAH vs. NA, p = .063) and recreation activities (LD vs. NA, p = .002; TDAH vs. NA, p = .011), where the NA group received higher scores. The families of ADHD children also differed from those of NA children: Stimulation towards writing (p = .011), rejection (p = .012), relations (p = .034) and cultural-intellectual orientation (p = .033); all cases, except for rejection, showed higher scores for the NA group. But the families of ADHD children also differ from those of children with LD in communication with the school (p = .049) and involvement in school (p = .022), with higher scores for the ADHD group. We observed the same in the case of positive conflict resolution (p = .005), where LD families score higher. Finally, families of children with LD also differ from those of the NA group in parental efficacy in writing instruction (p = .042), with higher

Fig. 1. Perceptions of families by family dynamic variables, according to the type of

children and children with ADHD (MNA = 3.2 vs. MADHD = 2.5, p = 0.068).

We performed a final analysis, a univariate variance (ANOVA), to determine whether there were any differences in educational expectations of the family as whole, parents in particular and the pupils themselves, depending on the type of children. In all cases we found statistically significant results (family expectations, F = 7.277, p = .001, parental expectations, F = 11.451, p = .001 and pupil expectations, F = 3.103, p = .050). These were confirmed after post-hoc contrasts that showed differences in family educational expectations between the NA, LD (MNA = 6.8 vs. MLD = 5, p = .007) and ADHD groups (MADHD = 5, p = .009). We confirmed these results by looking exclusively at parents' opinion (MNA = 3.7 vs. MADHD = 2.5, p = .002, and vs. MLD = 2.3, p <.001). In terms of the children's own expectations there are also differences close to statistical significance between NA

scores than the NA group. See Figure 1.

students.

individual point of view of parents and children, although we only present the results relating to the general family view as we consider it to be the most representative.

To address the second objective (role), after selecting each target group (families with LD, NA and ADHD), we introduced being a parent or a child as an independent variable.

In both cases we included the dynamic family dimensions obtained through the FAOP as dependent variables, but in the first case we also considered structural factors (parental education and family size). In this first case, the univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) performed to determine if relationships between the typological characteristics of pupils (NA, LD and ADHD) and household structural variables (educational level and family size) exist show the existence of statistically significant or close to significant differences regarding both the mother's (F=3.240, p=.045) and the father's level of instruction (F=2.608, p=0.081), as well as for the number of children (F=5.401, p=.006). Post-hoc contrasts confirmed results close to statistical significance in the educational level of fathers (p=0.093) and mothers (p=.086) of pupils NA (Mfather=3.32; Mmother=3.64) compared to children with LD (Mfather=2.4; Mmother=2.79). As for family size, data indicate that families of children with ADHD are larger than the other two groups (MADHD=2.22 vs. MNA=1.69, p = .011 & MLD = 1.76, p=.033).

## **3.1 Typology of children**

Multivariate contrasts indicate high and statistically significant results, with a very large effect size [F (48, 74) = 2.655, p <.001, η2 = .633]. Meanwhile, tests of inter-subject effects show statistically significant results with effect sizes ranging from medium to large for 41.93% of the variables (see Table 2 for details).


Table 2. Intersubject test results for group.

individual point of view of parents and children, although we only present the results

To address the second objective (role), after selecting each target group (families with LD, NA and ADHD), we introduced being a parent or a child as an independent variable.

In both cases we included the dynamic family dimensions obtained through the FAOP as dependent variables, but in the first case we also considered structural factors (parental education and family size). In this first case, the univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) performed to determine if relationships between the typological characteristics of pupils (NA, LD and ADHD) and household structural variables (educational level and family size) exist show the existence of statistically significant or close to significant differences regarding both the mother's (F=3.240, p=.045) and the father's level of instruction (F=2.608, p=0.081), as well as for the number of children (F=5.401, p=.006). Post-hoc contrasts confirmed results close to statistical significance in the educational level of fathers (p=0.093) and mothers (p=.086) of pupils NA (Mfather=3.32; Mmother=3.64) compared to children with LD (Mfather=2.4; Mmother=2.79). As for family size, data indicate that families of children with ADHD are larger than the other two groups (MADHD=2.22 vs. MNA=1.69, p =

Multivariate contrasts indicate high and statistically significant results, with a very large effect size [F (48, 74) = 2.655, p <.001, η2 = .633]. Meanwhile, tests of inter-subject effects show statistically significant results with effect sizes ranging from medium to large for

Involvement in school 63,5 8,58 60,6 10,82 69,5 10,56 4,283 ,018 ,125

Rejection 31,8 6,24 34,2 7,65 38,6 7,56 4,894 ,011 ,140 Expressiveness 11,9 2,28 10,1 2,72 10,05 2,59 3,666 ,031 ,109 Conflict 13 2,81 14,1 2,22 11,3 2,63 5,790 ,005 ,162 Relationships 40,9 6,57 38,8 6,40 35,8 5,86 3,622 ,033 ,108

Recreation 15 2,16 11,7 3,71 12,2 2,68 7,972 ,001 ,210 Total growth 49,32 5,36 45 9,02 43,6 6,91 3,677 ,031 ,109

*M ST M ST M ST F p* η<sup>2</sup>

31,36 5,93 30,2 5,73 34,5 4,9 3,451 ,038 ,103

37,1 4,32 33,1 5,12 34,62 5,66 3,446 ,038 ,103

25,64 3,52 23,55 3,63 22,3 3,07 5,017 ,010 ,143

13,2 2,56 12,25 3,02 10,71 3,69 3,646 ,032 ,108

*VARIABLES NA LD ADHD* 

relating to the general family view as we consider it to be the most representative.

.011 & MLD = 1.76, p=.033).

**3.1 Typology of children** 

Communication with

Efficacy in writing

Stimulation towards

Cultural-intellectual

Table 2. Intersubject test results for group.

orientation

the school

instruction

writing

41.93% of the variables (see Table 2 for details).

When collating the post hoc contrasts we detected statistically significant differences in the perceptions of families whose children have problems vis-à-vis families of NA pupils in: expressiveness (LD vs. NA, p = .089; TDAH vs. NA, p = .063) and recreation activities (LD vs. NA, p = .002; TDAH vs. NA, p = .011), where the NA group received higher scores. The families of ADHD children also differed from those of NA children: Stimulation towards writing (p = .011), rejection (p = .012), relations (p = .034) and cultural-intellectual orientation (p = .033); all cases, except for rejection, showed higher scores for the NA group. But the families of ADHD children also differ from those of children with LD in communication with the school (p = .049) and involvement in school (p = .022), with higher scores for the ADHD group. We observed the same in the case of positive conflict resolution (p = .005), where LD families score higher. Finally, families of children with LD also differ from those of the NA group in parental efficacy in writing instruction (p = .042), with higher scores than the NA group. See Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Perceptions of families by family dynamic variables, according to the type of students.

We performed a final analysis, a univariate variance (ANOVA), to determine whether there were any differences in educational expectations of the family as whole, parents in particular and the pupils themselves, depending on the type of children. In all cases we found statistically significant results (family expectations, F = 7.277, p = .001, parental expectations, F = 11.451, p = .001 and pupil expectations, F = 3.103, p = .050). These were confirmed after post-hoc contrasts that showed differences in family educational expectations between the NA, LD (MNA = 6.8 vs. MLD = 5, p = .007) and ADHD groups (MADHD = 5, p = .009). We confirmed these results by looking exclusively at parents' opinion (MNA = 3.7 vs. MADHD = 2.5, p = .002, and vs. MLD = 2.3, p <.001). In terms of the children's own expectations there are also differences close to statistical significance between NA children and children with ADHD (MNA = 3.2 vs. MADHD = 2.5, p = 0.068).

The Family Environment of Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD 139

control than is recognized by parents (Mparent = 4.5 vs. Mchild = 5.6, p = .013), whereas in NA families children perceive greater independence than recognized by parents

In terms of expectations, statistically significant differences exist only between the views of parents and the children in the NA group, with higher parental expectations (M parent = 3.73

Interest in LD and ADHD has been gradually shifting towards more holistic perspectives in terms of analysis and treatment, where not only the person is considered, but also all the social agents surrounding her/him (Dyson, 2010; Gortmaker, Daly, McCurdy, Persampieri, & Hergenrader, 2007; Mautone, Lefler, & Power, 2011; Polloway, Bursuck, & Epstein, 2001). However, despite progress in this area, there have been few and inconclusive results up to now (Dyson, 2010; Hegarty, 2008; Heiman & Berger, 2008; Xía, 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to conduct further research to jointly analyze the family dynamic and stable variables in relation to the academic performance of children with ADHD or LD. This will allow us to offer alternative multicomponent forms of intervention to promote these pupils'

The main objective of this research was to analyze the possible differences in the structural and dynamic family variables in relation to the characterization of pupils by comparing three groups of families organized by their children's typology and to study parents' and

When we look at the results for the structural variables in more detail, we see that the level of education of parents of children with LD is lower than that of parents of NA children. Families with lower levels of education provide less stimulating and literate home environments, so that children are at risk of starting school with lower levels of development of basic skills, which is particularly important in the case of LD (Dearing et al. 2009; Jordan & Levine, 2009; Park 2008; Van Stennsel, 2006; Williams & Dawson,

Furthermore, it should be stressed that LD has a strong genetic component, so that the limited education level of parents which was identified in this subgroup of children can be related to their own learning difficulties and thus biologically explain the deficits inherited by children (Berninger, Abbott & Thompson, 2001; Lyytinen, Eklund, & Lyytinen, 2005; Monuteaux, Faraone, Herzig, Navsari, & Biederman, 2005; Shalev, et al. 2001; Snowling, et al., 2007). Notwithstanding these circumstances, parental learning disabilities were not

Also in relation to structural variables, the results of this study indicate that families of children with ADHD are bigger than those of the other two groups analyzed. Pupils with ADHD need a lot of academic support, and demand more attention from their parents than usual. Parents who have several children need to split their attention between them, so they can become overworked and stressed. This can affect their ability to interact sensitively with the child's the demands, leading them to develop an intrusive educational style (Ryan,

verified in the sample studied, and may be a future focus of analysis.

(Mparent=4.41 vs. Mchild = 5, p = 0.074).

**4. Discussion and conclusions** 

children's perceptions within each group.

vs. Mchild = 3.21, p = .022).

development.

2011).

2002).

#### **3.2 Parent vs. child role**

Multivariate contrasts indicate high and statistically significant results, with a very large effect size for both the group of *families of children with NA* [F (24, 26) = 3.777, p = .001, η2 = .777], and for *families of children with ADHD* [F (24, 23) = 2.847, p = .007, η2 = .748]. For *families of pupils with LD* we found no statistically significant differences by including all FAOP scales together as dependent variables [F (24, 21) = 1.710, p = .109, η2 = .661]. Nevertheless, they were found when we did an individual analysis of each of the FAOP subscales, except for the FAOP-HOME scale.

Tests of inter-subject effects show which variables and between which groups there are statistically significant differences. Taking the variables obtained through FAOP-IM as a starting point, we observed that in both the NA group of families and the families of ADHD children parents' perceptions of home involvement (NA: Mparent = 60.2 vs. Mchild= 53.7, p <.001; ADHD Mparent = 56.6 vs. Mchild = 51.3, p = .008) and academic co-stimulation at home are higher than that of their children (NA: Mparent = 28.4 vs. Mchild = 25.1, p = .001; ADHD Mparent = 26.2 vs. Mchild = 22.1, p = .003). Likewise, parents of NA pupils report more motivation and academic support at home (Mparent = 31.8 vs. Mchild = 25.5, p <.001) and greater educational involvement in general than that recognized by their own children (Mparent = 91.2 vs. Mchild = 84.5, p = .011). For families of pupils with LD, the main differences between the views of parents and children, close to the statistical significance, are in terms of school-family communication (Mparent = 3.78 vs. Mchild = 4.21, p = 0.065) and overall involvement in it (Mparent = 29.1 vs. Mchild = 32.4, p = 0.084), with children's perceptions scoring higher.

In the FAOP-PRAES subscale, differences occur between parents and ADHD children in relation to the level of motivation towards writing offered at home, with parents scoring this type of activity higher (Mparent = 12.4 vs. Mchild = 10.3, p = .003). Meanwhile, families of pupils with LD showed the greatest statistically significant differences between parents and children. In this case, the children themselves identified a higher stimulation towards the use of higher psychological processes involved in writing composition than their parents (Mparent = 11.1 vs. Mchild = 12.6, p = 0.060), as well as feelings of effectiveness in writing instruction (Mparent = 35.1 vs. Mchild = 39.8, p = 0.019) and in the overall development of written composition (= 70 vs. Mparent. Mchild = 76.8, p = 0.049).

Regarding the FAOP-HOME scale, there are differences in the case of families of children with NA in the perception of the use of an authoritarian management style, with children scoring this higher (Mparent = 10.4 vs. Mchild = 12, p = .001). Meanwhile, in the case of families of children with ADHD, parents report feeling more acceptance (Mparent = 34.5 vs. Mchild = 32, p = .037) and rejection of their children (Mparent = 20.4 vs. Mchild = 17.5, p = .035) than reported by their children, similar to what happens in NA families, but only regarding acceptance (Mparent = 35.2 vs. Mchild = 32.8, p = .017).

Finally, in the FAOP-FES subscale, there are significant differences between parents and children in the three groups in expressiveness, with parents scoring higher (NA, p = .006; LD, p <.001, and ADHD, p = .013). For NA (Mparent = 21.4 vs. Mchild = 19.7, p = 0.097) and LD families (Mparent = 21.3 vs. Mchild = 18.4, p = .010) parents also report better family relations. ADHD families report a higher degree of stimulation towards intellectual-cultural activities (Mparent = 5.92 vs. Mchild = 4.79, p = 0.068). LD children perceive more parental control than is recognized by parents (Mparent = 4.5 vs. Mchild = 5.6, p = .013), whereas in NA families children perceive greater independence than recognized by parents (Mparent=4.41 vs. Mchild = 5, p = 0.074).

In terms of expectations, statistically significant differences exist only between the views of parents and the children in the NA group, with higher parental expectations (M parent = 3.73 vs. Mchild = 3.21, p = .022).
