**1. Introduction**

240 Learning Disabilities

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It was through the concern to meet the needs of the intelligent but under achieving child that the 'modern' field of learning disabilities was born. That said, we must keep in mind that it also started with a deep concern for the mentally retarded and a hopeful vision and conviction that fulfillment of the human potential was possible. The aim of this chapter is to provide tentative arguments in favor of a complementary view of the learning disabled child's ability to mature and to learn. My approach is based upon the necessity and importance of the body as a fundamental tool in the learning process but I will start with a historical overview of learning disabilities in general. To enable the reader to get a better understanding of the coherence between the different concepts which I wish to unite, I will give brief historical backgrounds as I proceed. These historical backgrounds also serve the purpose of showing that whilst my conclusion might be new, its different parts have long been in front of our eyes awaiting discovery. Through knowledge of history we are also better prepared for the future. However, the history of science has shown so many times before that a synthesis between different disciplines is needed in order for further progress to occur.

#### **2. Historical overview**

#### **2.1 The wild boy of Aveyron**

The written history of learning disabilities may be said to have started (Strauss & Lehtinen, 1947) in 1799 with the physician and educator Jean-Marc Gastard Itard (1775-1838). Living in France, Itard discovered the 'wild boy' Victor. Although diagnosed as an 'idiot' and incurable by the father of scientific psychiatry, Philippe Pinel (Flugel, 1933), Itard was convinced that the boy could be educated into 'an acceptable human being'. As a man of his time, Itard was shaped by the spirit of the French Revolution and the philosophy of an inherent limitless possibility of human development. Being a physician for the deaf he used the same sensory training for Victor as he used for speech training with his patients. Although Victor's social behavior improved, his intelligence and ability to comprehend remained below expectation. Itard felt his experiment was a failure but published the

Could Motor Development Be an Emergent Property of Vestibular Stimulation

have been of a sensorimotor character. I will return to this below.

measure the appropriate index. I will return to this problem below.

controversial, I will return to 'organic memory' later.

**2.3 Towards a science of learning disabilities** 

and Primary Reflex Inhibition? A Tentative Approach to Sensorimotor Therapy 243

rather due to the lack of ability to move and to explore. An important step was taken (Strauss & Lehtinen, 1947) when science was able to distinguish between syndromes of endogeneity and exogeneity in mental deficiency. Larsen (1931) summarized (in Strauss and Lehtinen, 1947) the exogenous features as "organic with acquired neurological symptoms (birth-injury, encephalitis, meningitis)". Kahn and Cohen (1934) described what they labeled 'Organic drivenness' as a consequence for some children surviving encephalitis epidemica. The primary symptom was hyperkinesis but the child also showed an inability to keep quiet, clumsiness and abruptness in the performance of movements. Silver (1951) includes in his review of the 'organic child' the hypokinetic child. This child often displays lags in language development and in motor abilities. He is extremely rigid, clings to a parent and avoids or expresses anxiety in 'anti-gravity' play. Silver suggests that both the hyperkinetic and the hypokinetic child should be tested for primitive – and postural reflexes and concludes; "There exists a large number of children with behavior disorder in whom organic signs as described in this paper are found but in whom no etiological factor can definitely be established. It is often difficult even to determine whether the organic state is developmental or acquired. Many we suspect are developmental, but in others the role of trauma or anoxia at birth is by no means ruled out" (p.42). Once again it is tempting to compare the description with present day reality. It is scary to think about all those children and youngsters who might have been regarded as mentally retarded when their problem might

The concept 'organic' is used to describe structural or 'real' diseases/disorders, "of known structural, chemical, or metabolic origin", in the domain of the neurologist as opposed to functional disorders, for example psychosomatic diseases/disorders, mainly treated by psychiatrists (Black's Medical Dictionary, 1990; The Merk Manual, 1989; Bloom & Lazerson, 1988). Body image (Schilder, 1964), for example, is based on physiological data and on the structural organization of the organism, but the final synthesis comes from the personality. However, as Bloom and Lazerson (1988) claim, the organic nature of a brain problem might be diagnosed as functional, whilst not being totally functional, due to an inability to

Mabel Todd, a contemporary of Larsen, Kahn and Cohen, defined proprioceptive sensations as organic (Todd, 1937) and grouped them into three types according to their origin (1). Kinesthesia, the feeling of movement. (2). Vestibular sensations, the feeling of position in space. (3). Visceral sensations, impressions from internal organs. In 1870, Ewald Hering (Finger, 1994) already used the term some what differently, in connection with memory, suggesting that 'organic memory' was more than just a part of the higher nervous system although his extension of these ideas was, and still is, very questionable. However

In the mid 1930s, Orton made the suggestion (Ahonen, Kooistra, Viholainen, & Cantell, 2004) that 'dyspraxia' or abnormal clumsiness was a developmental disorder to be found among dyslexic children. Not only were these children late in learning to walk and run, they were also late in visuomotor and manual tasks. In his book 'Reading, writing and speech problems in children' (1937), Orton developed the idea that clumsy children could have

training and the teaching in a book, 'The wild boy of Aveyron' (1801; 1806; 1932). All of the teaching and training carried out has become of great significance (Flugel, 1933) because it was the first systematic attempt to train someone 'feeble-minded'. His work was successfully continued by one of his medical students, Edouard Séguin (1812-1880). Influenced by the utopian socialist Count de Saint-Simon, Séguin believed that educating the mentally disabled was a step toward a better society (www.newworld encyclopedia.org). By 1828, a special institute for the education of the mentally disabled had already been established in Paris and in 1842 Séguin became its director. Like his teacher, Séguin rejected the notion (Anastasi & Urbina, 2007) that mental retardation was incurable and practiced sense training and muscle training for the benefit of his patients. At the time (Strauss & Lehtinen, 1947), his work was in line with medical science which proposed specific training of those senses which were impaired as a way to improve the function of the nervous system. In 1846 Séguin wrote "you can't teach a child to read and write until its sensory system is mature" (Holle, 1990) and still today (Anastasi & Urbina, 2007), the methods used for training mentally disabled children in sensory discrimination and motor control have their origin in Séguin's work and in no small way Maria Montessori's work was also influenced by him.

#### **2.2 Simon and Binet**

By the mid 19th century (Strauss & Lehtinen, 1947), the first institutes created according to the French model were established in USA and in Great Britain. However, by the end of the century, due to effective laws regulating the compulsory education of children, educators in the US were troubled with a new problem. For a couple of months each year (Ravitch, 2000), 95 % of the children aged five to thirteen attended school. Among these children were those who showed various degrees of retarded intellectual development with a decreased ability to understand and to learn but who still were too able to be institutionalized. As a consequence of the need to separate the mentally deficient student from the normal, Binet and Simon developed an intelligence test. The first scale presented in 1905 (Anastasi & Urbina, 2007), included sensory and perceptual skills but as Binet held reasoning, judgment and comprehension as essential for intelligence, the test stressed the verbal content. However useful, the test, or more correctly the concepts used failed to fully distinguish mentally deficient children from the mentally retarded. Binet and Simon wrote in 1914 as cited in Strauss and Lehtinen (1947);

 "….the division, which we have ourselves suggested, of all the abnormal into three groups: (1) the mentally defective; (2) the ill-balanced; (3) a mixed type which includes those who are both mentally defective and ill- balanced. The simply defective do not present any well defined anomaly of character, but they do not profit, or profit very little from ordinary school teaching. The ill-balanced, who might also be called the "undisciplined," are abnormal chiefly in character. They are distinguished by their unruliness, their talkativeness, their lack of attention, and sometimes their wickedness"(p. 12).

It is interesting to compare these lines to current descriptions of children with various difficulties and diagnoses. Simon and Binet seem to have roughly defined both the slow learner and the restless child but in the years to come the concepts would be further differentiated and refined. Doll, Phelps and Melcher (1932) postulated that mental retardation seen in children with cerebral palsy was not a direct effect of brain injury but

training and the teaching in a book, 'The wild boy of Aveyron' (1801; 1806; 1932). All of the teaching and training carried out has become of great significance (Flugel, 1933) because it was the first systematic attempt to train someone 'feeble-minded'. His work was successfully continued by one of his medical students, Edouard Séguin (1812-1880). Influenced by the utopian socialist Count de Saint-Simon, Séguin believed that educating the mentally disabled was a step toward a better society (www.newworld encyclopedia.org). By 1828, a special institute for the education of the mentally disabled had already been established in Paris and in 1842 Séguin became its director. Like his teacher, Séguin rejected the notion (Anastasi & Urbina, 2007) that mental retardation was incurable and practiced sense training and muscle training for the benefit of his patients. At the time (Strauss & Lehtinen, 1947), his work was in line with medical science which proposed specific training of those senses which were impaired as a way to improve the function of the nervous system. In 1846 Séguin wrote "you can't teach a child to read and write until its sensory system is mature" (Holle, 1990) and still today (Anastasi & Urbina, 2007), the methods used for training mentally disabled children in sensory discrimination and motor control have their origin in Séguin's work and in no small way Maria Montessori's work

By the mid 19th century (Strauss & Lehtinen, 1947), the first institutes created according to the French model were established in USA and in Great Britain. However, by the end of the century, due to effective laws regulating the compulsory education of children, educators in the US were troubled with a new problem. For a couple of months each year (Ravitch, 2000), 95 % of the children aged five to thirteen attended school. Among these children were those who showed various degrees of retarded intellectual development with a decreased ability to understand and to learn but who still were too able to be institutionalized. As a consequence of the need to separate the mentally deficient student from the normal, Binet and Simon developed an intelligence test. The first scale presented in 1905 (Anastasi & Urbina, 2007), included sensory and perceptual skills but as Binet held reasoning, judgment and comprehension as essential for intelligence, the test stressed the verbal content. However useful, the test, or more correctly the concepts used failed to fully distinguish mentally deficient children from the mentally retarded. Binet and Simon wrote in 1914 as

 "….the division, which we have ourselves suggested, of all the abnormal into three groups: (1) the mentally defective; (2) the ill-balanced; (3) a mixed type which includes those who are both mentally defective and ill- balanced. The simply defective do not present any well defined anomaly of character, but they do not profit, or profit very little from ordinary school teaching. The ill-balanced, who might also be called the "undisciplined," are abnormal chiefly in character. They are distinguished by their unruliness, their

It is interesting to compare these lines to current descriptions of children with various difficulties and diagnoses. Simon and Binet seem to have roughly defined both the slow learner and the restless child but in the years to come the concepts would be further differentiated and refined. Doll, Phelps and Melcher (1932) postulated that mental retardation seen in children with cerebral palsy was not a direct effect of brain injury but

talkativeness, their lack of attention, and sometimes their wickedness"(p. 12).

was also influenced by him.

cited in Strauss and Lehtinen (1947);

**2.2 Simon and Binet** 

rather due to the lack of ability to move and to explore. An important step was taken (Strauss & Lehtinen, 1947) when science was able to distinguish between syndromes of endogeneity and exogeneity in mental deficiency. Larsen (1931) summarized (in Strauss and Lehtinen, 1947) the exogenous features as "organic with acquired neurological symptoms (birth-injury, encephalitis, meningitis)". Kahn and Cohen (1934) described what they labeled 'Organic drivenness' as a consequence for some children surviving encephalitis epidemica. The primary symptom was hyperkinesis but the child also showed an inability to keep quiet, clumsiness and abruptness in the performance of movements. Silver (1951) includes in his review of the 'organic child' the hypokinetic child. This child often displays lags in language development and in motor abilities. He is extremely rigid, clings to a parent and avoids or expresses anxiety in 'anti-gravity' play. Silver suggests that both the hyperkinetic and the hypokinetic child should be tested for primitive – and postural reflexes and concludes; "There exists a large number of children with behavior disorder in whom organic signs as described in this paper are found but in whom no etiological factor can definitely be established. It is often difficult even to determine whether the organic state is developmental or acquired. Many we suspect are developmental, but in others the role of trauma or anoxia at birth is by no means ruled out" (p.42). Once again it is tempting to compare the description with present day reality. It is scary to think about all those children and youngsters who might have been regarded as mentally retarded when their problem might have been of a sensorimotor character. I will return to this below.
