**7. A framework of disability-specific tactic knowledge**

In their seminal qualitative study, Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsberg (1995) used a framework of proactive cognitive and social tactics to define how 71 participants maximized their social and professional potential despite living with LD. The framework also appears in other works by the same authors (e.g., Gerber, Ginsberg, & Reiff, 1992; Reiff, 1998, 2004; Reiff, Gerber, & Ginsberg, 1997). Perhaps the most unique feature of this research is the pursuit of what could be termed expert knowledge in a disability context. Unsurprisingly, Reiff et al. (1995) stated that a study of expert performance by Bloom (1982) was a significant influence on their framework. Bloom's study was with 25 participants who achieved world class accomplishments before the age of 35 and predates the works of Ericsson and colleagues. The link between expert performance and disability-specific tactic knowledge is therefore clear.

A distinctive feature of Reiff et al.'s (1995) framework is that it defines how individuals maximize their potential through their operationalization of psychosocial attributes and tactics to identify, circumvent, or master disability-related difficulties. Maslow (1970) defined psychosocial attributes as an individual's cognitive traits and processes. For Reiff et al., these are defined as 'Internal Decisions' and consist of three parts: Desire, Reframing, and Goal Orientation. Sternberg (1985) further theorized that psychosocial tactics are externalized behavior outcomes caused by cognitive attributes. For Reiff et al., these are defined as 'External Manifestations' and consist of four parts: Persistence, Goodness of Fit, Learned Creativity, and Social Ecologies. As such, the individual's Internal Decisions are instrumental to their adaptive behavior, which is defined as External Manifestations. Overriding these seven psychosocial skills is the eighth theme of Control, which has a dual role as being both independent of and also inherent within the seven other themes. A summary of Reiff et al.'s framework appears below:

**Control**: is controlling one's own destiny, both in real time interaction and with general life circumstances, through use of proactive thinking strategies and social skills.

#### **Internal Decisions**

298 Learning Disabilities

prescriptive communication and psychosocial skills specific to deafness-related social challenges. The value of Glickman's text is that it makes cognitive behavioral therapy accessible to low functioning deaf individuals and also to deaf people whose first language is SL. Hogan's communication skills program adapted the Hearing and Listening Skills Program published by Hetu and Getty (1991) - perhaps the most acknowledged intervention for deaf people to enhance their management of everyday difficulties (Heydebrand et al., 2005). Hogan's program aims to equip deaf people with 1) problem identification, 2) problem exploration, and 3) problem resolution. Many excellent deafness-specific strategies are provided. Hogan's program was additionally adapted for a study by Heydebrand et al. Adaptation of the program included enhancement of communication skills through cognitive behavioral techniques designed to positively reframe the participants' negative assumptions, attitudes, and beliefs associated with their deafness. Participants were taught to identify the emotional reasons and consequences of why they might not, or should, initiate strategies (e.g., asking to turn down loud music at a party to improve conversational ease). These are examples of deafness-specific tactic knowledge. Heydebrand et al. found that the psychosocial skills program proved effective to the study's participants, which highlights the value of specialist tuition in the nurturing of expert performance (Ericsson et al., 1993). Without question, the aforementioned books and programs have covered much ground regarding the understanding and prescription of deafness-specific tactic knowledge. But a systematic and comprehensive framework of proactive deafness-specific tactic knowledge may further improve our understanding of deaf people's social and professional

In their seminal qualitative study, Reiff, Gerber, and Ginsberg (1995) used a framework of proactive cognitive and social tactics to define how 71 participants maximized their social and professional potential despite living with LD. The framework also appears in other works by the same authors (e.g., Gerber, Ginsberg, & Reiff, 1992; Reiff, 1998, 2004; Reiff, Gerber, & Ginsberg, 1997). Perhaps the most unique feature of this research is the pursuit of what could be termed expert knowledge in a disability context. Unsurprisingly, Reiff et al. (1995) stated that a study of expert performance by Bloom (1982) was a significant influence on their framework. Bloom's study was with 25 participants who achieved world class accomplishments before the age of 35 and predates the works of Ericsson and colleagues. The link between expert performance and disability-specific tactic knowledge is therefore clear.

A distinctive feature of Reiff et al.'s (1995) framework is that it defines how individuals maximize their potential through their operationalization of psychosocial attributes and tactics to identify, circumvent, or master disability-related difficulties. Maslow (1970) defined psychosocial attributes as an individual's cognitive traits and processes. For Reiff et al., these are defined as 'Internal Decisions' and consist of three parts: Desire, Reframing, and Goal Orientation. Sternberg (1985) further theorized that psychosocial tactics are externalized behavior outcomes caused by cognitive attributes. For Reiff et al., these are defined as 'External Manifestations' and consist of four parts: Persistence, Goodness of Fit, Learned Creativity, and Social Ecologies. As such, the individual's Internal Decisions are instrumental to their adaptive behavior, which is defined as External Manifestations. Overriding these seven psychosocial skills is the eighth theme of Control, which has a dual

participation and mental wellbeing.

**7. A framework of disability-specific tactic knowledge** 

**Desire**: is putting motivation into action and also describes the individual's endeavor to achieve professional and social outcomes.

**Goal Orientation**: is the purposeful planning and pursuit of short- or long-term goals in social and professional situations.

**Reframing**: is purposefully challenging negative thought processes in order to create proactive behavioral outcomes.

#### **External Manifestations**

**Persistence**: is proactively dealing with immediate or long-term disability-related adversity.

**Learned Creativity:** is the use of various disability-specific compensatory strategies, techniques, methods, or aids.

**Goodness of Fit**: is choosing social environments that suit personal strengths and/ or avoiding or minimizing entry into settings where success is unlikely.

**Social Ecologies:** is initiating and maintaining relationships of varying degrees of intimacy to gain the assistance or emotional support of others.

Table 1. Reiff et al.'s (1995) framework of proactive cognitive and social tactics

My PhD research used Reiff et al.'s (1995) framework to observe how deaf participants maximize their social and professional potential (Jacobs, 2009). Although numerous deaf adults have achieved prominence in a variety of professions, scarce research has been systematically undertaken to understand how their success is attained. The review of the literature suggested that the aforementioned eight themes in Reiff et al.'s framework could be applied to a deafness context (see Jacobs, 2010). In other words, deaf people likely use tactic knowledge specific to identifying, circumventing, or mastering social and professional deafness-related challenges. Unlike Reiff et al.'s (1995) study, my study sought to compare the psychosocial competencies in deaf adult participants with a control sample of adult participants without a disability (Jacobs, 2009). This exploratory study was with 49 deaf (n = 30) and hearing (n = 19) adult participants who were residing in America, Australia, England, and South Africa. All participants regarded themselves as maximizing their potential and were currently employed.

Survey items were created for both quantitative and qualitative analyses. In order to conduct statistical analyses, Reiff at al.'s framework was modified so that the eight psychosocial themes combined to create the overall outcome of Potential Maximization (see Jacobs, 2010). The theme of Control was assigned to an independent thematic category mostly to reduce the ambiguity of Reiff et al.'s definition of the theme. This adaptation

Deafness-Specific Tactic Knowledge:

A New Understanding of Mental Health, and Social and Professional Participation 301

(Davis, L.J., 1995). In short, the Deaf community has a biological, linguistic, and cultural uniqueness that defines it as a legitimate social minority. However, the majority of deaf people do not self-identify as being culturally Deaf largely due to their having no

Jason wore hearing aids and reported moderate bilateral deafness. All deaf participants in the study reported a greater severity of deafness than he. He did not specify when his deafness occurred, or whether it was gradual or sudden. Qualitative data, however, suggested that he likely lost his hearing in adulthood. Jason had attained a Masters degree. He reported no Deaf community involvement and had not learnt SL. He did, nonetheless,

From here we can look at the two participants' responses to select survey items that were guided by deafness-related studies grouped according to Reiff et al.'s (1995) framework (Jacobs, 2010). The following three tables summarize responses according the three thematic categories of Control, Internal Decisions, and External Manifestations. The purpose of such analysis is to provide a contrast effect whereby responses to survey items can illustrate trends.

**Anthony Jason** 

Strongly agree Disagree

Strongly agree Disagree

attributes and tactics "John Howard"

Yes No

Strongly disagree Agree

Numerous actual

association with this community or use of SL (Access Economics, 2006).

agree that his life would be better with greater Deaf community involvement.

Table 2 summarizes the responses of the two participants for items related to Control.

Table 2. Comparisons of Anthony's and Jason's distinctive responses to items: Control

The two participants' responses to five Control items reveal some interesting insights. Anthony strongly agreed and Jason disagreed that he felt in control of both his work and social life, and also that adulthood was easier than childhood. Anthony also strongly disagreed but Jason agreed that his life is miserable because of his deafness. In addition, and interestingly, Jason simply wrote the former Australian Prime Minister "John Howard" when summarizing a deaf person maximizing their potential with hearing peers. For the same item, Anthony elaborated that such a deaf person has attributes such as acknowledging deafness-related challenges and the quickness "to formulate ways to get around the problem" by using tactics such as providing an email address or a SMS number and not "a voice phone number, and explaining it is the preferred way to contact the deaf person, etc." Anthony further agreed that he had overcome the challenges of his deafness,

*Control*

**I am in control of my work and** 

**Adulthood is easier for me than** 

**My life is miserable because of** 

**Summary of deaf person who has** 

**I have overcome the challenges of** 

**maximized their potential**

**social life** 

**childhood**

**deafness**

**my deafness** 

enabled the implementation of statistical procedures whereby survey items could be scored. As such, Potential Maximization was the combined score of the three grouped competencies of Control, Internal Decisions, and External Manifestations. At the time of writing, a paper reporting the empirical findings prepared by myself with Dr Louise Paatsch and Associate Professor Margaret Brown was accepted for publication with the *Volta Review*. Summarized, however, there were remarkable findings. Statistical data found no significant differences between deaf and hearing participant groups across four variables of Control, Internal Decisions, External Manifestations, and Potential Maximization. As such, this study's deaf and hearing participants shared similar psychosocial attributes, and tactics to maximize their potential. Qualitative data further revealed that deaf participants maximized their potential using two types of proactive psychosocial attributes and tactics: 1) skills that individuals with typical hearing use to socially participate combined with 2) specialized skills for identifying, circumventing, or mastering deafness-related difficulties. These attributes and tactics were uncovered using Reiff et al.'s (1995) framework, which can further be used to frame previously unpublished findings from my study (Jacobs, 2009). As such, the coming analyses of case studies may provide greater clarity of expert performance that is the proactive use of specialized psychosocial skills by deaf people.
