**2.2 Instruments**

132 Learning Disabilities

The first intersample balance criterion was pupils' intellectual capacity. We considered necessary for all children in our sample to have an IQ within the normal range. In this case it

The second pairing criterion was the school year, since this study that addresses issues related to learning, such as performance, and this factor is closely related to the year of study or grade. This item has a total balance in the distribution of participants to experimental groups as reflected by the absence of statistically significant differences between groups (χ2 = .000, *p* = 1). In addition, consideration of the educational level has

We then looked at the family elements in order to ensure the maximum similarity between the groups and verified that no statistically significant differences existed between groups in any of the factors analyzed, as evidenced by Chi-square statistic: father's age (χ2 = 45.981, p = 0.238), mother's age (χ2 = 47.845, p = 0.131) father's employment status (χ2 = 5965, p = 0.427), mother's employment status (χ2 = 2413, p = .660), parents' marital status (χ2 = 3105, p = 0.540), number of people living in the home (χ2 = 11,586, p = 0.314) and square meters of

Regarding the criteria for inclusion of pupils in each sample group according to their types,

To identify pupils with LD we used internationally established criteria (American Psychiatric Association, APA, 2002; National Joint Committee of Learning Disabilities -

We first established the need for a diagnosis of a specific delay of at least two years and two standard deviations below the average yield from the normative age group and level of education. To this end, we conducted systematic interviews with teachers, which allowed us to identify pupils who had poor performance in writing, since, as already noted, this study's area of interest lies essentially in writing learning disabilities. We also carried out a direct assessment of pupil's writing competence. All the children, led by a researcher and in their own class groups, conducted an essay writing task with a free theme and length. The essays were subsequently corrected in a comprehensive manner by experienced and highly qualified professionals specifically trained for this purpose, using the text correction protocol developed by the research team headed by J. N. García. The results of each pupil were matched to the scale of regulated scores produced by the researchers, thereby assigning each child a position in that scale. This allowed us to identify those pupils whose writing performance was two standard deviations below the mean expected based on age

Secondly, we required normal IQ in pupils, so we asked all children to perform Catell and Catell's (2001) G Factor test, which provides an overall intelligence score and the possibility

International standards for the diagnosis of learning disabilities also explicitly require the absence of any other developmental disorders which could explain the limitations associated with the field analyzed and to receive standardized and adequate schooling. Therefore, in our interviews with teachers we also verified these aspects, confirming that

enabled the matching of groups according to children's age (χ2 = 19.989, *p* = .530).

was confirmed that all pupils had an IQ of 80 or over.

housing (χ2 = 71.188, p = 0.251).

NJCLD 1997).

and/or academic year.

of a collective application.

several elements were taken into account.

In order to assess how parents and children perceive the different dimensions of the family educational context, we used the parental (FAOP-PA Robledo & Garcia, 2007) and the children's version of the Family Opinions Instrument (FAOP-HI, Robledo & Garcia, in press). This instrument has suitable psychometric properties in termsn of validity and reliability, with Cronbach's Alpha .921 for children and .929 for parents and includes different levels, as detailed in Table 1.

The set of questions also allows us to know the aspirations and expectations of parents and/or children regarding the educational and vocational future of children.

Similarly, the Personal Information section, allows us to look into the structural dimension of the home.

The Family Environment of Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD 135

their children.

responsibility.

We used two factorial designs, a 3×1 (type) and a 2×1 (role). The former to compare the three groups of families (LD, ADHD or NA) on the different dependent variables (FAOP). In the latter, for each of the groups considered, we compared parents' perception with those of

We requested the cooperation and consent of the management teams of each school and the teachers were informed of the object of the research and the nature of the help required from them. We asked them to answer questions about the children in order to classify them according to our typology and discard several problematic situations. Similarly, they had to enable researchers to carry out the evaluation sessions with pupils in which they underwent, once families' informed consent was obtained, all the relevant assessments. These assessments were carried out in groups over two sessions of one hour each. They also had to hand the FAOP questionnaire to families, along with a letter explaining the study and requesting their participation and that of their children, and be responsible for its subsequent collection. To ensure parents really filled in the scales and that they consented to their children's the evaluation they were explicitly asked to sign the questionnaire or return

Once the field work was completed, we corrected the assessments and computerized the results. We then proceeded to select the subsample which we used to perform the statistical analysis. In order to do this we used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)

In order to address our first objective (typology) we considered the type of pupil (LD, NA and ADHD) as a fixed factor, addressing the family's opinion as a whole, based on the





Organization and Control

*Scale Construct assessed Dimensions* 

parenting styles, emotional control (parents' and children's perception).

Social and environmental characteristics of families (parents' and children's perception).

Table 1. Description of the scales within FAOP

version 17.0. Its results are presented below.

*Family opinions: atmosphere (FAOP-FES)* 

**2.3 Design** 

their children.

**2.4 Procedure** 

it in person.

**3. Results** 



Table 1. Description of the scales within FAOP

#### **2.3 Design**

134 Learning Disabilities

professionals.

difficulties.

collaborative attitudes.



professionals, other families.

parents and teachers.

write by parents.

writing.

aspects.

materials.

development.

and behaviors.

their children.

within the home or at the family's initiative.

that parents do in school with children,

Communication with school: contact between



involvement in teaching writing by helping with homework and with mechanical and higher-order







overall satisfaction with the teaching



learning and having the training to deal with these

Family's motivation and support towards schooling. Collaboration and stimulation at home: stimulating behaviors and the promotion of learning environments

School-based collaboration, activities and behaviors

*Scale Construct assessed Dimensions* 

Satisfaction with education received, the school and its professionals (parents only)

Parental involvement in education (parents' and children's perception).

Parental role in teaching and motivation of written

communication skills (parents' and children's perception).

Provision of a household with characteristics conducive to learning: resources, enhancing autonomy and maturity,

*Family opinions: satisfaction with education (FAOP-SE)* 

*Family opinions:* 

*Family opinions: writing practice (FAOP-PRAES)* 

*Family opinions: home (FAOP-HOME)* 

*parental involvement in education (FAOP- IM)* 

We used two factorial designs, a 3×1 (type) and a 2×1 (role). The former to compare the three groups of families (LD, ADHD or NA) on the different dependent variables (FAOP). In the latter, for each of the groups considered, we compared parents' perception with those of their children.
