**2.1 Participants**

130 Learning Disabilities

the children's correct academic development (Barkauskiene, 2009; Campbell & Verna, 2007). Specifically, studies suggest that pupils whose families help them and functionally interact with them, use effective educational styles and where there are few arguments and low levels of stress, do better at school and learn more easily (Bodovski & Youn, 2010; Guoliang, Zhang , & Yan, 2005; Halawah, 2006; Heiman, Zinck, & Heath, 2008). However, in troubled or dysfunctional families subjects receive fewer stimulation and of lower quality, and their academic development is therefore slower (Ghazarian & Buehler, 2010; Sheppard, 2005). These factors can also be risk factors present in homes where there are children with LD or ADHD (Dyson, 2010; Foley, 2011). Usually in these pupils' homes there is a level of stress which impairs family functioning and the development of the person with the problem (Biederman et al. 1996; Hishinuma, 2000; O'Connor, McConkey, & Hartop, 2005; Strnadová, 2006, Trainor 2005). Additionally, parents' educational styles tend to be very directive and very ineffective (Johnston & Mash, 2001; Presentation, Pinto, Melia, & Miranda, 2009; Schroeder & Kelley, 2009). However, results are inconclusive. Some studies even fail to find a difference in the climate of families of children with LD and families of pupils without disabilities (Dyson, 2010; Heiman & Berger, 2008). Therefore, it is necessary to undertake

Other factors that influence children's learning are attitudes, perceptions and parental expectations regarding their academic performance. Apparently, parents' positive attitude towards their children and family support increase pupils' confidence in their abilities and awakens the child's interest in satisfying and meeting parents' expectations (Campbell & Verna, 2007; Figuera, Daria, & Forner, 2003). However, in families where there are children with deficits parents' negative attitudes towards their children tend to predominate. In such families there is usually fewer expression of feelings and emotions, and adults tend to provide negative feedback to their children on their behavior and ability, criticize them or underestimate their abilities, and show pessimistic expectations about their academic future (Dyson, 2010; Goldstein, Harvey, & Friedman, 2007; Stoll, 2000). These behaviors may help the child forge a negative self-image, thereby damaging the development of her/his personality (Taylor, Chadwick, Heptinstall, & Danckaerts, 1996). Given the importance of these elements, further studies are needed to verify these facts in the cases of LD and ADHD. Another important aspect for pupils' academic success is the cooperation between their families and schools (Powell, et al., 2010). In this regard, it has been shown that parental involvement in education stimulates pupils' motivation toward academic work, their commitment to school and their perception of competence, control and efficiency (González, Willems, & Doan, 2005; Urdan, Solek, Schoenfelder, & 2007; Mo & Singh, 2008). Thus, parental involvement promotes children's proper academic development in general and is therefore of special interest in the case of LD or ADHD. In these cases, coordinated academic support between family and school, and an adequate level of family collaboration on academic work are factors that promote optimal learning (Martinez & Alvarez, 2005). In this case, there is also a degree of correlation between parental satisfaction and educational involvement (Gershwin, Singer, & Draper, 2008; Seitsinger, Felner, Brand, & Burns, 2008; Spann, Kohler, & Soenksen, 2003). It is, however, necessary to continue to analyze these

There are some important controversies in research findings regarding the parents' offer of stimulating learning environments at home. While some studies found no difference

further studies in this area.

interactions in the case of LD and ADHD.

Participants were 87 families of pupils enrolled in four Spanish private and state schools. This sample was drawn from a larger sample of 610 families studied. The selection process consisted of us looking at the smallest group (ADHD, n = 29) and then selecting and additional 29 cases of families of pupils with LD and 29 families of children with NA, taking several criteria into account, regarding the characteristics of the children and their families .

The Family Environment of Students with Learning Disabilities and ADHD 133

pupils with LD did not have any other documented developmental disorder and received

The assessment procedure for the identification of writing disabilities was applied to all the pupils sampled, which also allowed us to identify children who make up the NA group. Faculty interviews were also used to rule out types of learning disabilities (reading or math) in these children, thus confirming that their overall performance in different areas was normal. Moreover, the fact that these pupils were classmates of children with LD meant

The ADHD group was made up entirely of pupils with neurological and psychological clinical diagnoses, performed by multidisciplinary teams within the area of pediatric neurology at La Fe hospital (Valencia), Hospital de León (León) and the Universities of León and Valencia. However, in order to confirm the diagnosis we verified that all the children met the following criteria: 1) clinical diagnosis of combined ADHD subtype according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, revised (American Psychiatric Association, 2003) and agreement between parents and teachers about the presence of at least six symptoms of inattention and at least six symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity; 2) the duration of symptoms exceeded a year, 3) the problem had appeared before age 7; 4) not suffering psychosis, neurological damage, epilepsy or sensory deficit. In addition, subjects T scored over sixty-three in scales of hyperactivity, inattention and total index of the Conners test, in its parental (CPTRS-R: S) and teacher versions (CTRS-

The family participants were the mothers in 57.7% of cases, only 6.9% were the fathers, although 33% of the cases involved both parents (in 2.4% of cases the family participant did not indicated her/his relation to the pupil). The average age of the father figures was 44.5 years while that of the mother figures was 42.33 years. Regarding their education, in the case of families of children with NA, 10% of the parents had only reached primary studies, 56% secondary studies and 33% of parents had university studies. For families of pupils with LD, 32% of the families had primary studies, 64% secondary and 4% university studies. Finally, the parents of children with ADHD had reached 40% primary, 34% secondary and 26%

In order to assess how parents and children perceive the different dimensions of the family educational context, we used the parental (FAOP-PA Robledo & Garcia, 2007) and the children's version of the Family Opinions Instrument (FAOP-HI, Robledo & Garcia, in press). This instrument has suitable psychometric properties in termsn of validity and reliability, with Cronbach's Alpha .921 for children and .929 for parents and includes

The set of questions also allows us to know the aspirations and expectations of parents

Similarly, the Personal Information section, allows us to look into the structural dimension

and/or children regarding the educational and vocational future of children.

both groups had received the same instruction in written composition.

proper schooling.

R: S) (Conners, 2001).

university studies.

**2.2 Instruments** 

of the home.

different levels, as detailed in Table 1.

The first intersample balance criterion was pupils' intellectual capacity. We considered necessary for all children in our sample to have an IQ within the normal range. In this case it was confirmed that all pupils had an IQ of 80 or over.

The second pairing criterion was the school year, since this study that addresses issues related to learning, such as performance, and this factor is closely related to the year of study or grade. This item has a total balance in the distribution of participants to experimental groups as reflected by the absence of statistically significant differences between groups (χ2 = .000, *p* = 1). In addition, consideration of the educational level has enabled the matching of groups according to children's age (χ2 = 19.989, *p* = .530).

We then looked at the family elements in order to ensure the maximum similarity between the groups and verified that no statistically significant differences existed between groups in any of the factors analyzed, as evidenced by Chi-square statistic: father's age (χ2 = 45.981, p = 0.238), mother's age (χ2 = 47.845, p = 0.131) father's employment status (χ2 = 5965, p = 0.427), mother's employment status (χ2 = 2413, p = .660), parents' marital status (χ2 = 3105, p = 0.540), number of people living in the home (χ2 = 11,586, p = 0.314) and square meters of housing (χ2 = 71.188, p = 0.251).

Regarding the criteria for inclusion of pupils in each sample group according to their types, several elements were taken into account.

To identify pupils with LD we used internationally established criteria (American Psychiatric Association, APA, 2002; National Joint Committee of Learning Disabilities - NJCLD 1997).

We first established the need for a diagnosis of a specific delay of at least two years and two standard deviations below the average yield from the normative age group and level of education. To this end, we conducted systematic interviews with teachers, which allowed us to identify pupils who had poor performance in writing, since, as already noted, this study's area of interest lies essentially in writing learning disabilities. We also carried out a direct assessment of pupil's writing competence. All the children, led by a researcher and in their own class groups, conducted an essay writing task with a free theme and length. The essays were subsequently corrected in a comprehensive manner by experienced and highly qualified professionals specifically trained for this purpose, using the text correction protocol developed by the research team headed by J. N. García. The results of each pupil were matched to the scale of regulated scores produced by the researchers, thereby assigning each child a position in that scale. This allowed us to identify those pupils whose writing performance was two standard deviations below the mean expected based on age and/or academic year.

Secondly, we required normal IQ in pupils, so we asked all children to perform Catell and Catell's (2001) G Factor test, which provides an overall intelligence score and the possibility of a collective application.

International standards for the diagnosis of learning disabilities also explicitly require the absence of any other developmental disorders which could explain the limitations associated with the field analyzed and to receive standardized and adequate schooling. Therefore, in our interviews with teachers we also verified these aspects, confirming that pupils with LD did not have any other documented developmental disorder and received proper schooling.

The assessment procedure for the identification of writing disabilities was applied to all the pupils sampled, which also allowed us to identify children who make up the NA group. Faculty interviews were also used to rule out types of learning disabilities (reading or math) in these children, thus confirming that their overall performance in different areas was normal. Moreover, the fact that these pupils were classmates of children with LD meant both groups had received the same instruction in written composition.

The ADHD group was made up entirely of pupils with neurological and psychological clinical diagnoses, performed by multidisciplinary teams within the area of pediatric neurology at La Fe hospital (Valencia), Hospital de León (León) and the Universities of León and Valencia. However, in order to confirm the diagnosis we verified that all the children met the following criteria: 1) clinical diagnosis of combined ADHD subtype according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, revised (American Psychiatric Association, 2003) and agreement between parents and teachers about the presence of at least six symptoms of inattention and at least six symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity; 2) the duration of symptoms exceeded a year, 3) the problem had appeared before age 7; 4) not suffering psychosis, neurological damage, epilepsy or sensory deficit. In addition, subjects T scored over sixty-three in scales of hyperactivity, inattention and total index of the Conners test, in its parental (CPTRS-R: S) and teacher versions (CTRS-R: S) (Conners, 2001).

The family participants were the mothers in 57.7% of cases, only 6.9% were the fathers, although 33% of the cases involved both parents (in 2.4% of cases the family participant did not indicated her/his relation to the pupil). The average age of the father figures was 44.5 years while that of the mother figures was 42.33 years. Regarding their education, in the case of families of children with NA, 10% of the parents had only reached primary studies, 56% secondary studies and 33% of parents had university studies. For families of pupils with LD, 32% of the families had primary studies, 64% secondary and 4% university studies. Finally, the parents of children with ADHD had reached 40% primary, 34% secondary and 26% university studies.
