**3. Veterinarians' role in animal welfare and behavioral assessment**

The veterinary works under an ethical code of professional conduct which implies a commitment with integrated principles of animal welfare and the individual responsibility of ensuring a rational enforcement of the "Five Freedoms" (**Table 2**). All animals must be treated with respect, dignity and compassion as well as with thoughtful consideration for their species-typical biology and behavior [31]. Despite significant advances concerning the animal welfare (AW) topic through recent years, the majority of the research conducted has involved farm and domesticated animals [32, 33]. Zoological collections still include many poorly understood species as well as individuals with different life experiences and particular temperaments [32]. Animal welfare is a wide multi-disciplinary concept for which many definitions have been proposed. Animal welfare as a scientific field started with the Brambell Report on the welfare of intensively farmed animals, issued by the British government in 1965 [34] and later revised by the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) in 1979, having resulted in the decree of five formalized and rightful freedoms that would form a logical and comprehensive framework for analysis of animal welfare [35]. Farm Animal Welfare Council claims that the welfare of an animal includes both its physical fitness and mental state and that "any animal kept by man, must at least, be protected from unnecessary suffering". Webster [36] considers that although the "absolute attainment of all five freedoms is unrealistic", they still represent an "attempt to make the best of a complex and difficult situation". Some of these freedoms, like the freedom from fear and distress or freedom from pain, are anthropocentric constructs. Fear and pain are normal and essential in appropriate situations, where they work as natural defense mechanisms and may have adaptive and fitness value [37]. Conclusively, the freedoms define "ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare" [35] and are best viewed as useful and practical principles that provide the basic philosophy to minimize suffering and promote a state of good welfare and assessment of any husbandry system.

Today, AW can be scientifically assessed to determine the quality of life of individuals, and it implies the integration of the animal's biological function, as well as the subjective emotions and sensations it experiences as a result of the surrounding environment [10]. Consequently, the individual's health is highlighted as a "state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" [38]. Broom [39] also utters that "The welfare of an individual is


### **Table 2.**

*The "Five Freedoms" which constitute the primary basic principles for animal welfare.*

<sup>1.</sup>**Freedom from hunger and thirst—**by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigor

<sup>2.</sup>**Freedom from discomfort—**by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area

its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment". Welfare is, therefore, a characteristic of an individual [8, 12] and will vary on a dimensional continuum from very poor to very good [10, 37] as a measure of the animal's perception of its external circumstances and lived experiences [40]. The ability of an organism to tolerate and respond to a range of stimulation, including noxious stimuli, in order to maintain mental and body stability, is called "Coping" [32]. Coping implies the concepts of homeostasis and adaptation, as well as brain activity, endocrine, immunological, physiological and behavioral complex response mechanisms [8]. Scientific consideration of subjective emotional states in AW has been disregarded since these are difficult to identify and quantify [32, 37]. However, active promotion of positive feelings, such as pleasure and contentment, plays a primary role in assuring good welfare status [8, 41] provided that this is determined from an overall balance of experiences. Addressing only the negative emotions and states will not necessarily give rise to positive ones but will merely serve to achieve a neutral situation [10, 40]. Animals have a wide range of needs, which must be always met appropriately according to each species and based on scientific principles, so as to minimize negative welfare states while promoting positive ones [10]. Failure or difficulty to cope with the environment occurs together with the presence of negative emotional states (suffering) and subjective experiences, and it represents a state of poor welfare, from a holistic view of well-being [12, 42]. Animals seek to control interactions with their environment and avoid unpleasant stimuli. When unable to do so, and simultaneously denied resources they are very strongly motivated to obtain, they will achieve a distressful state of frustration and anxiety [10, 43]. Stress is currently defined by its consequences and described as detrimental as a reaction to a challenging stimuli that will activate the organism's hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and produce a response with adverse effects that disrupts homeostasis [8], resulting in overall reduced fitness [32]. It can lead to a variety of short and long term responses characterized by a range of physiological abnormalities (i.e., alterations in hormonal profiles, metabolic changes and cardiovascular malfunction) [8] as well as psychological disorders (maladaptive demeanor such as increased occurrence of pacing, aggression, selfmutilation or fear behaviors) [43]. It is therefore essential to provide animals with productive environments that reward them with fresh challenges, opportunities and choices over time which allow them to express innate behavior and control interactions with their surroundings [8, 10]. Animals are now acknowledged as "sentient beings" [44], considered to have value of their own and to be able of conscious feeling and subjectively perceiving both positive and negative emotions and experiences. Despite the whole concept of AW involving moral values and judgments about our obligations to the animals under our care, it is only after scientific evidence on welfare assessment has been obtained that ethical questions and decisions are ought to be taken [8, 12]. Qualitative and quantitative scientific methods for determining acceptable high standards of AW are complex and multidisciplinary [32] and involve indirect (by taking into consideration the animal needs) and direct measurement of variables, both conducted through observation and experimentation. It is imperative that a variety of "welfare indicators" are used [12] in order to obtain a comprehensive view of the animal's biological state which is characterized by several interacting components that result in neural, endocrine, sensory, immunological and behavioral responses when faced with challenge [8]. WAZA recommends that zoos and aquariums apply a simple "Five Domains" model to facilitate the assessment and understanding of AW, which schematically outlines four functional domains (i.e., "nutrition", "environment", "physical health" and "behavior") and one "Mental" domain. This useful model links a variety of internal/external conditions with the negative (aversive) or

**125**

individuals on a consistent basis [48].

*Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare*

determine a particular hierarchy of needs [40, 45].

positive (pleasant) experiences they give rise to, and integrates its effects in order to draw the sketch of a welfare status [10]. Some physiological indices cannot be obtained safely in non-trained zoo animals without the use of anesthesia or sedatives (e.g., changes in heart and respiratory rates, blood parameters, hormonal profiles or neurotransmitters' levels) [8]. Alternatively, other internal parameters can be collected noninvasively, for example, measuring reproductive or stress hormones and their metabolites in urine or feces (e.g., fecal estrogens or fecal glucocorticoids) [12, 32]. The HPA axis' frequent and high activity is the most often used physiologic measure [32], very useful in assessing stress responses and impaired immune system associated with environmental disturbance. It is usually

monitored noninvasively through analysis of fecal cortisol/corticosterone

[42, 45]. Although efforts should be made to include the importance of both positive (pleasure, contempt) and negative feelings or sensations (suffering, fear, pain) in the assessment of AW, these imply complex brain constructs and functioning mechanisms which are not easy to evaluate in a fully objective way [8]. Dawkins [43] argues that animal welfare should be assessed by answering two essential questions: (1) Are the animals healthy? and (2) Do they have what they want?, and that these two queries concentrate both the physical and the mental features of AW. Some indirect methods that help answering these key questions and are frequently used for AW assessment and improvement, include behavioral observation associated with tests that identify individuals' choices/preferences or study their motivational strength by "asking" the animals what they want and how much they want it. The way an animal responds to given opportunities in its environment offers valuable information about its emotional state and motivation, and helps to

Animal welfare is considered to be a scientific branch of applied animal behavior and may be measured through behavioral assessment [46]. Understanding behavioral diversity, its function and its relation with the animal's perception of their external circumstances is important as it might help to prevent what is considered an abnormal demeanor or to improve conditions that are appropriate for normal repertoires. Skinner [47] considers that behavior is "part of the total activity of an organism" and that "is that part of the functioning organism which is engaged in acting upon or having commerce with the outside world". Behavior as a specific response, therefore represents the first line of defense to environmental challenging stimuli and may delineate a rough sketch of an animal's coping success against external stressors [10, 42]. It plays a major role in answering Dawkin's [43] questions: (1) "Are the animals healthy?" and (2) "Do they have what they want?", since it encompasses animals' own decision-making process and represents a phenotypic expression of emotions [43] while it also may be used in the clinical assessment of animal's health status (e.g., assessment of pain, nutritional requirements and hormonal conditions) [43, 48]. Behavior assessment through applied behavior analysis and behavioral monitoring studies is a technique that has several benefits supporting optimal animal care, making it essential to improve animal welfare and to meet conservation goals. These studies have emphasis on scientific data collection through direct and objective observation of measurable behavior as well as the circumstances under which they occur, and concern the functional relationships between environment and expressions of behavior [43, 48]. Systematic observations and record keeping have numerous advantages as a management tool in zoos and other related facilities: they represent a non-invasive and, in the majority of cases, a non-intrusive technique [43] that allows documentation of normal behavior patterns and identification of any changes on regular activity, establishing a database of background information on

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

#### *Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment". Welfare is, therefore, a characteristic of an individual [8, 12] and will vary on a dimensional continuum from very poor to very good [10, 37] as a measure of the animal's perception of its external circumstances and lived experiences [40]. The ability of an organism to tolerate and respond to a range of stimulation, including noxious stimuli, in order to maintain mental and body stability, is called "Coping" [32]. Coping implies the concepts of homeostasis and adaptation, as well as brain activity, endocrine, immunological, physiological and behavioral complex response mechanisms [8]. Scientific consideration of subjective emotional states in AW has been disregarded since these are difficult to identify and quantify [32, 37]. However, active promotion of positive feelings, such as pleasure and contentment, plays a primary role in assuring good welfare status [8, 41] provided that this is determined from an overall balance of experiences. Addressing only the negative emotions and states will not necessarily give rise to positive ones but will merely serve to achieve a neutral situation [10, 40]. Animals have a wide range of needs, which must be always met appropriately according to each species and based on scientific principles, so as to minimize negative welfare states while promoting positive ones [10]. Failure or difficulty to cope with the environment occurs together with the presence of negative emotional states (suffering) and subjective experiences, and it represents a state of poor welfare, from a holistic view of well-being [12, 42]. Animals seek to control interactions with their environment and avoid unpleasant stimuli. When unable to do so, and simultaneously denied resources they are very strongly motivated to obtain, they will achieve a distressful state of frustration and anxiety [10, 43]. Stress is currently defined by its consequences and described as detrimental as a reaction to a challenging stimuli that will activate the organism's hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and produce a response with adverse effects that disrupts homeostasis [8], resulting in overall reduced fitness [32]. It can lead to a variety of short and long term responses characterized by a range of physiological abnormalities (i.e., alterations in hormonal profiles, metabolic changes and cardiovascular malfunction) [8] as well as psychological disorders (maladaptive demeanor such as increased occurrence of pacing, aggression, selfmutilation or fear behaviors) [43]. It is therefore essential to provide animals with productive environments that reward them with fresh challenges, opportunities and choices over time which allow them to express innate behavior and control interactions with their surroundings [8, 10]. Animals are now acknowledged as "sentient beings" [44], considered to have value of their own and to be able of conscious feeling and subjectively perceiving both positive and negative emotions and experiences. Despite the whole concept of AW involving moral values and judgments about our obligations to the animals under our care, it is only after scientific evidence on welfare assessment has been obtained that ethical questions and decisions are ought to be taken [8, 12]. Qualitative and quantitative scientific methods for determining acceptable high standards of AW are complex and multidisciplinary [32] and involve indirect (by taking into consideration the animal needs) and direct measurement of variables, both conducted through observation and experimentation. It is imperative that a variety of "welfare indicators" are used [12] in order to obtain a comprehensive view of the animal's biological state which is characterized by several interacting components that result in neural, endocrine, sensory, immunological and behavioral responses when faced with challenge [8]. WAZA recommends that zoos and aquariums apply a simple "Five Domains" model to facilitate the assessment and understanding of AW, which schematically outlines four functional domains (i.e., "nutrition", "environment", "physical health" and "behavior") and one "Mental" domain. This useful model links a variety of internal/external conditions with the negative (aversive) or

**124**

positive (pleasant) experiences they give rise to, and integrates its effects in order to draw the sketch of a welfare status [10]. Some physiological indices cannot be obtained safely in non-trained zoo animals without the use of anesthesia or sedatives (e.g., changes in heart and respiratory rates, blood parameters, hormonal profiles or neurotransmitters' levels) [8]. Alternatively, other internal parameters can be collected noninvasively, for example, measuring reproductive or stress hormones and their metabolites in urine or feces (e.g., fecal estrogens or fecal glucocorticoids) [12, 32]. The HPA axis' frequent and high activity is the most often used physiologic measure [32], very useful in assessing stress responses and impaired immune system associated with environmental disturbance. It is usually monitored noninvasively through analysis of fecal cortisol/corticosterone [42, 45]. Although efforts should be made to include the importance of both positive (pleasure, contempt) and negative feelings or sensations (suffering, fear, pain) in the assessment of AW, these imply complex brain constructs and functioning mechanisms which are not easy to evaluate in a fully objective way [8]. Dawkins [43] argues that animal welfare should be assessed by answering two essential questions: (1) Are the animals healthy? and (2) Do they have what they want?, and that these two queries concentrate both the physical and the mental features of AW. Some indirect methods that help answering these key questions and are frequently used for AW assessment and improvement, include behavioral observation associated with tests that identify individuals' choices/preferences or study their motivational strength by "asking" the animals what they want and how much they want it. The way an animal responds to given opportunities in its environment offers valuable information about its emotional state and motivation, and helps to determine a particular hierarchy of needs [40, 45].

Animal welfare is considered to be a scientific branch of applied animal behavior and may be measured through behavioral assessment [46]. Understanding behavioral diversity, its function and its relation with the animal's perception of their external circumstances is important as it might help to prevent what is considered an abnormal demeanor or to improve conditions that are appropriate for normal repertoires. Skinner [47] considers that behavior is "part of the total activity of an organism" and that "is that part of the functioning organism which is engaged in acting upon or having commerce with the outside world". Behavior as a specific response, therefore represents the first line of defense to environmental challenging stimuli and may delineate a rough sketch of an animal's coping success against external stressors [10, 42]. It plays a major role in answering Dawkin's [43] questions: (1) "Are the animals healthy?" and (2) "Do they have what they want?", since it encompasses animals' own decision-making process and represents a phenotypic expression of emotions [43] while it also may be used in the clinical assessment of animal's health status (e.g., assessment of pain, nutritional requirements and hormonal conditions) [43, 48]. Behavior assessment through applied behavior analysis and behavioral monitoring studies is a technique that has several benefits supporting optimal animal care, making it essential to improve animal welfare and to meet conservation goals. These studies have emphasis on scientific data collection through direct and objective observation of measurable behavior as well as the circumstances under which they occur, and concern the functional relationships between environment and expressions of behavior [43, 48]. Systematic observations and record keeping have numerous advantages as a management tool in zoos and other related facilities: they represent a non-invasive and, in the majority of cases, a non-intrusive technique [43] that allows documentation of normal behavior patterns and identification of any changes on regular activity, establishing a database of background information on individuals on a consistent basis [48].

#### **3.1 Behavioral enrichment**

The History of enrichment starts in the 1920s with Robert Mearns Yerkes [49], a psychobiologist best known for his work in intelligence testing of both humans and primates and his writings about the importance of enrichment for gorillas and chimpanzees in captivity [50]. The Swiss zoologist Heini Hediger (1908–1992), known as the "father of zoo biology", was a visionary in the proxemics in animal behavior. In the 1950s, and for the next several decades, he wrote about human responsibility in providing constructive environments for wild animals in zoos and described the importance of studying animal's territorial surroundings, having a particular influence on the construction and planning of naturalistic enclosures [49, 51]. His revolutionary concepts are well expressed in his book in which he refers that "Anyone who sets out to build homes for animals should be quite clear that the cube is the most unbiological and therefore most inappropriate of all spatial forms" [52].

The American psychologist and behaviorist Skinner had strong implications on enrichment as well. He used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, created the principles of reinforcement and introduced the process of shaping, techniques that are still used today in many animal training husbandry and medical procedures, and represent a gold standard for dealing with behavioral problems in a variety of settings [50]. He also reported sterile environments causing animals to engage in repetitive behaviors [49]. Hal Markowitz also made significant contributions to the expansion of social consideration about enrichment since the 1970s, being a pioneer in marine mammal research and extending the work by former authors concerning operant conditioning in order to apply this science to improve animal's life [49]. There have been tremendous improvements regarding animal care and captive settings throughout recent years. Replication of wild conditions and stimulation of wild biological repertoires in captive animals have been a long term conservational goal for many zoological institutions. This way, behavioral enrichment programs have become an accepted practice whose most generic priority is addressing and reducing undesirable behaviors [53, 54].

Behavioral enrichment, also known as environmental enrichment, is currently a principle of animal husbandry that has been scientifically proofed to be beneficial [10, 19]. It should be fully incorporated in the daily routine of animals as a tool to maximize their quality of life and discourage undesirable behaviors that emerge as "artifacts of captivity" (e.g., stereotypies) [9, 19]. Enrichment is officially defined as "a dynamic process for enhancing animal environments within the context of the animals' behavioral biology and natural history. Environmental changes are made with the goal of increasing the animals' behavioral choices and drawing out their speciesappropriate behaviors, thus enhancing animal welfare" [55]. The aims of behavioral enrichment can be achieved by creating productive environments which encourage each animal to express the natural mental activities and behavioral repertoire of the species, and by adding stimulus that offer complexity and novelty to its routine as well as opportunities that enable it to restore the sense of control it should have over its environment [55]. Behavioral programs have a role in fighting against inactivity and obesity, reducing/eliminating stereotyped and aberrant behavior (e.g., aggression, sexual frustration), and decreasing levels of stress which can, alone, indulge reproduction [9, 55]. For an enrichment program to succeed, it is very important that it is methodically planned in accordance with its objectives and desired outcomes, otherwise it may be more harmful than beneficial [19]. The foundation and logistics of a successful, goal-orientated and self-sustained program can be outlined through AZA reviewed guidelines and protocols so as to represent a master plan from goal setting to re-adjustment, addressing safety issues, providing and keeping up-to-date resources [55]. All animal care staff members and all the professional sectors in the

**127**

of each species [55].

widely used enrichment techniques [63].

*Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare*

zoological institutions must be involved in the development of an animal enrichment program, as each one plays a critical role in its success [19, 56]. Disney's Animal Kingdom developed the 'S.P.I.D.E.R' framework, a solid model which works as a valuable tool in the development, implementation and maintenance of institutional training and enrichment programs. These programs provide species with appropriate challenges, opportunities and stimulation for all taxa [10, 56]. S.P.I.D.E.R is an acronym for the first letter of each component of the framework [57], as follows: setting goals; planning; implementation; documenting; evaluation; re-adjustment. The last component of the framework actually takes place during all the process of development of an enrichment plan [56]. The goals of a plan are regularly re-adjusted and enrichment activities refined, improved or discontinued to increase effectiveness of a strategy, which may, at some point, be started over again [55]. Five, not mutually exclusive, enrichment categories are generally recognized which will cover the basic needs of an animal and increase a positive utilization of its environment: (1) sensory;

(2) structural/physical; (3) social (4) cognitive and (5) food/nutrition [55].

**Sensory** enrichment refers to the five perceptual senses of sight, smell, hearing, taste and touch [19]. Olfactory stimulation is of the main importance in behavioral enrichment as many species use olfactory signalment to communicate with intra and inter specifics as well as to maintain their territories. They are also driven by their sense of smell to locate prey, reproductive mates or food [54, 58]. Olfactory enrichment may include addition of scented material and both packaged and natural odors [33, 59, 60]. On the other hand, daily removal of natural odors from enclosures through husbandry routine practices should be avoided as it leads to clearance of important olfactory cues in the animal's environment [13]. The value of auditory stimulation to the well-being of animals is still controversial in the literature. It can be vaguely divided into sounds specific of a specie's natural habitat and sounds that are not found in the wild [44]. It is important to bear in mind that the addition of extra noise to environments which can be pretty loud themselves may also have a negative impact in their dwellers, including hearing impairment and communication disconcert between animals [9, 13]. In some cases, the most significant aspect regarding acoustic stimulation so far, may be the overall reduction of the ambient noise [13]. Visual means of enriching the captive environment of animals may include addition of mirrors, moving toys, televisions or other computer-assisted equipment as well as simply allowing the sight of activities outside the enclosure or of a prey [13, 19]. The tactile category includes a varied set of toys, subtracts and other artificial/natural manipulanda, which can be provided in different shapes and textures, either permanently or through a rotation scheme in order to maintain interest, and in close association with the other classes of sensorial enrichment [9, 61]. "**Foraging**", as a concept that comprises searching, retrieving, acquiring and processing food [61], is a time consuming activity that constitutes a major portion of the daily time budget of animals in the wild [19, 62]. Captivity, on the other hand, provides animals with a more limited selection of food types, usually processed diets that are dispensed in highly predicted locations, at fixed feeding times, and in an easily consumed form which does not require natural foraging tactics [9, 62]. Feeding animals through more versatile and natural ways is one of the most

**Structural** enrichment highlights the utmost importance of the quality of the space available in overcoming space restrictions [9, 52]. A revolution in zoo enclosure design has led to a proliferation of more naturalistic exhibits which replicate as closely as possible the wild habitat of the species concerned [23, 52]. These exhibits are also functionally evaluated with the priority of creating stimulating and appropriate captive environments according to the specific behaviors and biological needs

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

#### *Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

**3.1 Behavioral enrichment**

therefore most inappropriate of all spatial forms" [52].

addressing and reducing undesirable behaviors [53, 54].

The History of enrichment starts in the 1920s with Robert Mearns Yerkes [49], a psychobiologist best known for his work in intelligence testing of both humans and primates and his writings about the importance of enrichment for gorillas and chimpanzees in captivity [50]. The Swiss zoologist Heini Hediger (1908–1992), known as the "father of zoo biology", was a visionary in the proxemics in animal behavior. In the 1950s, and for the next several decades, he wrote about human responsibility in providing constructive environments for wild animals in zoos and described the importance of studying animal's territorial surroundings, having a particular influence on the construction and planning of naturalistic enclosures [49, 51]. His revolutionary concepts are well expressed in his book in which he refers that "Anyone who sets out to build homes for animals should be quite clear that the cube is the most unbiological and

The American psychologist and behaviorist Skinner had strong implications on enrichment as well. He used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, created the principles of reinforcement and introduced the process of shaping, techniques that are still used today in many animal training husbandry and medical procedures, and represent a gold standard for dealing with behavioral problems in a variety of settings [50]. He also reported sterile environments causing animals to engage in repetitive behaviors [49]. Hal Markowitz also made significant contributions to the expansion of social consideration about enrichment since the 1970s, being a pioneer in marine mammal research and extending the work by former authors concerning operant conditioning in order to apply this science to improve animal's life [49]. There have been tremendous improvements regarding animal care and captive settings throughout recent years. Replication of wild conditions and stimulation of wild biological repertoires in captive animals have been a long term conservational goal for many zoological institutions. This way, behavioral enrichment programs have become an accepted practice whose most generic priority is

Behavioral enrichment, also known as environmental enrichment, is currently a principle of animal husbandry that has been scientifically proofed to be beneficial [10, 19]. It should be fully incorporated in the daily routine of animals as a tool to maximize their quality of life and discourage undesirable behaviors that emerge as "artifacts of captivity" (e.g., stereotypies) [9, 19]. Enrichment is officially defined as "a dynamic process for enhancing animal environments within the context of the animals' behavioral biology and natural history. Environmental changes are made with the goal of increasing the animals' behavioral choices and drawing out their speciesappropriate behaviors, thus enhancing animal welfare" [55]. The aims of behavioral enrichment can be achieved by creating productive environments which encourage each animal to express the natural mental activities and behavioral repertoire of the species, and by adding stimulus that offer complexity and novelty to its routine as well as opportunities that enable it to restore the sense of control it should have over its environment [55]. Behavioral programs have a role in fighting against inactivity and obesity, reducing/eliminating stereotyped and aberrant behavior (e.g., aggression, sexual frustration), and decreasing levels of stress which can, alone, indulge reproduction [9, 55]. For an enrichment program to succeed, it is very important that it is methodically planned in accordance with its objectives and desired outcomes, otherwise it may be more harmful than beneficial [19]. The foundation and logistics of a successful, goal-orientated and self-sustained program can be outlined through AZA reviewed guidelines and protocols so as to represent a master plan from goal setting to re-adjustment, addressing safety issues, providing and keeping up-to-date resources [55]. All animal care staff members and all the professional sectors in the

**126**

zoological institutions must be involved in the development of an animal enrichment program, as each one plays a critical role in its success [19, 56]. Disney's Animal Kingdom developed the 'S.P.I.D.E.R' framework, a solid model which works as a valuable tool in the development, implementation and maintenance of institutional training and enrichment programs. These programs provide species with appropriate challenges, opportunities and stimulation for all taxa [10, 56]. S.P.I.D.E.R is an acronym for the first letter of each component of the framework [57], as follows: setting goals; planning; implementation; documenting; evaluation; re-adjustment. The last component of the framework actually takes place during all the process of development of an enrichment plan [56]. The goals of a plan are regularly re-adjusted and enrichment activities refined, improved or discontinued to increase effectiveness of a strategy, which may, at some point, be started over again [55]. Five, not mutually exclusive, enrichment categories are generally recognized which will cover the basic needs of an animal and increase a positive utilization of its environment: (1) sensory; (2) structural/physical; (3) social (4) cognitive and (5) food/nutrition [55].

**Sensory** enrichment refers to the five perceptual senses of sight, smell, hearing, taste and touch [19]. Olfactory stimulation is of the main importance in behavioral enrichment as many species use olfactory signalment to communicate with intra and inter specifics as well as to maintain their territories. They are also driven by their sense of smell to locate prey, reproductive mates or food [54, 58]. Olfactory enrichment may include addition of scented material and both packaged and natural odors [33, 59, 60]. On the other hand, daily removal of natural odors from enclosures through husbandry routine practices should be avoided as it leads to clearance of important olfactory cues in the animal's environment [13]. The value of auditory stimulation to the well-being of animals is still controversial in the literature. It can be vaguely divided into sounds specific of a specie's natural habitat and sounds that are not found in the wild [44]. It is important to bear in mind that the addition of extra noise to environments which can be pretty loud themselves may also have a negative impact in their dwellers, including hearing impairment and communication disconcert between animals [9, 13]. In some cases, the most significant aspect regarding acoustic stimulation so far, may be the overall reduction of the ambient noise [13]. Visual means of enriching the captive environment of animals may include addition of mirrors, moving toys, televisions or other computer-assisted equipment as well as simply allowing the sight of activities outside the enclosure or of a prey [13, 19]. The tactile category includes a varied set of toys, subtracts and other artificial/natural manipulanda, which can be provided in different shapes and textures, either permanently or through a rotation scheme in order to maintain interest, and in close association with the other classes of sensorial enrichment [9, 61].

"**Foraging**", as a concept that comprises searching, retrieving, acquiring and processing food [61], is a time consuming activity that constitutes a major portion of the daily time budget of animals in the wild [19, 62]. Captivity, on the other hand, provides animals with a more limited selection of food types, usually processed diets that are dispensed in highly predicted locations, at fixed feeding times, and in an easily consumed form which does not require natural foraging tactics [9, 62]. Feeding animals through more versatile and natural ways is one of the most widely used enrichment techniques [63].

**Structural** enrichment highlights the utmost importance of the quality of the space available in overcoming space restrictions [9, 52]. A revolution in zoo enclosure design has led to a proliferation of more naturalistic exhibits which replicate as closely as possible the wild habitat of the species concerned [23, 52]. These exhibits are also functionally evaluated with the priority of creating stimulating and appropriate captive environments according to the specific behaviors and biological needs of each species [55].

**Social** enrichment involves all forms of social interactions provided direct or indirectly by conspecifics, humans and other species of animals, through physical contact, verbal communication or even olfactory signalment [56]. Many studies instigate the importance of housing appropriate social groupings in the welfare of captive animals [64, 65]. The term "mixed-species exhibits" implies inter-specific associations of animals that would naturally occur in the wild [19].

**Cognitive/mental** stimulation may be carried out through provision of training sessions, puzzle feeders and other cognitive devices that require animals to solve a problem [19, 55]. Training, based on both classical and operant conditioning principles is a revolutionary way of intellectually challenging the everyday routine of captive animals while managing them to comply with basic husbandry tasks or medical procedures without being forced to do so [61].

Enrichment in its most varied forms elicits investigatory, foraging or marking behavior, social interaction, and creative play. It also provides shade and privacy through hiding places or escape routes, leading to a more efficient use of space [9, 61]. However, the results of every approach will depend on intrinsic factors such as species, age, sex and individual personality [13]. The animal's environment can thus be manipulated and modified in countless ways through a holistic view of the animal's biology, being the limit our own creativity. However, enrichment will not only be beneficial for the animals but for the general public as well. Through promotion of natural species-specific behaviors, enrichment will create valuable and more accurate educational opportunities for the visitors to learn about animal's natural history, biology and conservation. Consequently, it will enhance guest's experiences and their perception of the zoological institutions' mission [19, 55].

## **4. Conclusion**

Veterinarians are irrevocable generalists, which makes them proficient in the holistic approach of disease dynamics. They have not only a broad education in comparative medicine (not a single-species focus) but also in many specialties such as surgery, clinical medicine, anesthesiology, epidemiology, nutrition, pathology, toxicology, theriogenology and behavior. This makes them excellent at understanding both mental and physical needs of an animal, and how well adapted it is to its environment [3, 15]. Wildlife vets are also highly trained in recognizing, diagnosing and understanding disease impact on public health as well as on individuals, populations and whole ecosystems; and, in choosing the most advisable preventive and therapeutic options on a case by case basis [14, 15]. Their ubiquitous knowledge, skills and expertise therefore turns them into valuable key players in planning, implementing and effectively assisting both in-situ and ex-situ conservation projects [2]. As a result, deep collaboration between veterinarians and professionals of other scientific fields such as applied biomedics, epidemiology, ecology, biology and evolutionary genetics, is becoming positively accepted as a new way of integrating health sciences into conservation [2, 15] thus defining Conservation Medicine.

## **Acknowledgements**

The authors wish to thank Dr. Carla Monteiro of the Santo Inácio Zoo, Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal for her technical and scientific support.

This study was funded by the project UID/CVT/00772/2013 and UID/ CVT/00772/2016 supported by the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT).

**129**

**Author details**

Diana Raquel Neves Fernandes1

Santinhas, Silves, Portugal

University, Vila Real, Portugal

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: lpinto@utad.pt

*Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

1 National Center for the Reproduction of the Iberian Lynx (CNRLI), Herdade das

2 Animal and Veterinary Research Centre (CECAV), Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro

and Maria de Lurdes Ribeiro Pinto2

\*

*Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

**Social** enrichment involves all forms of social interactions provided direct or indirectly by conspecifics, humans and other species of animals, through physical contact, verbal communication or even olfactory signalment [56]. Many studies instigate the importance of housing appropriate social groupings in the welfare of captive animals [64, 65]. The term "mixed-species exhibits" implies inter-specific

**Cognitive/mental** stimulation may be carried out through provision of training sessions, puzzle feeders and other cognitive devices that require animals to solve a problem [19, 55]. Training, based on both classical and operant conditioning principles is a revolutionary way of intellectually challenging the everyday routine of captive animals while managing them to comply with basic husbandry tasks or

Enrichment in its most varied forms elicits investigatory, foraging or marking behavior, social interaction, and creative play. It also provides shade and privacy through hiding places or escape routes, leading to a more efficient use of space [9, 61]. However, the results of every approach will depend on intrinsic factors such as species, age, sex and individual personality [13]. The animal's environment can thus be manipulated and modified in countless ways through a holistic view of the animal's biology, being the limit our own creativity. However, enrichment will not only be beneficial for the animals but for the general public as well. Through promotion of natural species-specific behaviors, enrichment will create valuable and more accurate educational opportunities for the visitors to learn about animal's natural history, biology and conservation. Consequently, it will enhance guest's experiences and their perception of the zoological institutions' mission [19, 55].

Veterinarians are irrevocable generalists, which makes them proficient in the holistic approach of disease dynamics. They have not only a broad education in comparative medicine (not a single-species focus) but also in many specialties such as surgery, clinical medicine, anesthesiology, epidemiology, nutrition, pathology, toxicology, theriogenology and behavior. This makes them excellent at understanding both mental and physical needs of an animal, and how well adapted it is to its environment [3, 15]. Wildlife vets are also highly trained in recognizing, diagnosing and understanding disease impact on public health as well as on individuals, populations and whole ecosystems; and, in choosing the most advisable preventive and therapeutic options on a case by case basis [14, 15]. Their ubiquitous knowledge, skills and expertise therefore turns them into valuable key players in planning, implementing and effectively assisting both in-situ and ex-situ conservation projects [2]. As a result, deep collaboration between veterinarians and professionals of other scientific fields such as applied biomedics, epidemiology, ecology, biology and evolutionary genetics, is becoming positively accepted as a new way of integrating health sciences into conservation [2, 15] thus defining Conservation Medicine.

The authors wish to thank Dr. Carla Monteiro of the Santo Inácio Zoo, Vila Nova

This study was funded by the project UID/CVT/00772/2013 and UID/ CVT/00772/2016 supported by the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation

de Gaia, Portugal for her technical and scientific support.

associations of animals that would naturally occur in the wild [19].

medical procedures without being forced to do so [61].

**128**

(FCT).

**Acknowledgements**

**4. Conclusion**
