**5. Conclusion**

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

oocysts in 60% of the farms.

a respective of 88 and 12 small- and large-scale broiler farms located in Central Ethiopia (Debre Zeit, Dukem, Mojo, and Nazareth towns) and found coccidian

Of the interviewed village chicken households, 91.5% of the farmers had no awareness how to manage village chicken diseases. In general, similar problems were observed on village chicken health management system across all regions. In the present study, about 84% of household chicken flocks were not vaccinated against any poultry diseases. This might be due to the lack of awareness and the difficulty on accessing and handling the vaccine in free-range family chicken production systems. The vaccine dosage may not match to the village chicken flock sizes, which is mostly less than 50 birds; in addition, the lack of basic infrastructure and maintenance of the cold chain in some remote areas is difficult. Some interviewed households (15.7%) reported that their chickens were vaccinated against some outbreaks of Newcastle disease. However, no routine vaccination campaigns are done by the official veterinary services to control backyard chicken diseases. In general, vaccination management and disease control method in the free-range

Compared to small-scale semi-intensive and intensively kept commercial chickens, drugs and herbs used by village poultry household respondents during poultry disease outbreak to treat infected chickens were reported to be ineffective (55%) and sometimes effective (14.8%). They complain about the ineffectiveness of some of those drugs or herbs used for the treatment of infected chickens or for the control of mortality. This might be due to the absence of vaccination practices (unless vaccinated, viral diseases are incurable), the application of none standardized drugs (drugs prepared for human, unknown dose application, and the use of combination of many drugs or herbal medicines). The veterinary drugs and veterinary service insufficiencies in remote areas and the high cost of veterinary drugs were also reported. Majority of village poultry households explained that they visit human pharmacy and/or apply traditional medicine (51%), while some of them visit veterinary clinic, sale infected

According to 29.6, 27, and 10% of the respondents, they replied that quarter, more than half, and all chickens died due to diseases, respectively, while 10, 13.8, and 8% of them replied that quarter, more than half, and all died due to predators attack, respectively, in the last 24 months (**Table 2**). However, differences on the rates of mortality were recorded among regions; this agreed with findings of Gueye [19], who reported that farm poultry production systems are related to high mortality (mainly due to Newcastle disease), in tropical Africa. Disease patterns vary according to the season. Newcastle disease is more serious during the dry season [13]. In the present study, household respondents also reported the occurrence of Newcastle disease, respiratory diseases, and fowl pox outbreaks during the short rainy season and the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections, respiratory diseases, parasitic infestation,

Traditional medicine like herbal therapies are widely used by the majority of African people to treat various human and animal diseases, and it is the only choice for most of them since veterinarians working in African rural areas almost remain inaccessible [20]. Most village farmers in the study regions depend on herbal remedies for indigenous poultry health management. A total of 19 medicinal plants were reported as being used locally for the treatment of various chicken diseases as a traditional medicine. They use the leaf and the fruit (seeds) materials from the plant parts. The application is in the form of juice from freshly collected leaves or in the form of powder from dried seeds. The remedies are prepared by grinding both the leaves and the seeds. These herbal medicines can be prepared in a single or combination of two or three

family chicken production systems are difficult (**Table 2**).

birds, and do nothing during poultry disease outbreak.

and coccidiosis in the long rainy season.

**112**

The main causes of losses were identified as disease and predator attack. Poor disease prevention and control and the lack of knowledge, management skills, and provision of feed, water, and housing were also identified as the major constraints of poultry production in the study areas. Newcastle disease is the most severe infectious disease reported by the farmers followed by gastrointestinal infection, respiratory syndrome, internal and external parasites, coccidiosis, and fowl pox. During poultry disease outbreak, households reported that they visit human pharmacy and/or apply herbal medicines; however, there is no scientific document available which proves the efficacy and the dosage administration of the medicinal plants or human medicines used to control poultry diseases. Farmers reported the ineffectiveness of some drugs or herbs. No routine vaccination campaigns against any poultry diseases are done by the official veterinary services to control backyard chicken diseases except to some outbreaks of Newcastle disease. Some of small-scale commercial poultry farms located in and around urban and semi-urban areas practiced vaccination program. The free-range management systems make vaccination of chickens difficult. The pattern of disease occurrence varies according to the season. In the present study, household respondents reported the occurrence of Newcastle disease, respiratory diseases, and fowl pox outbreaks during the short rainy season. On the other hand, gastrointestinal infections, respiratory diseases, parasitic infestation, and coccidiosis were reported to occur in the long rainy season. A total of 19 medicinal plants were reported as being used locally for the treatment of various chicken diseases. Better feeding, watering, hygiene, and protection management and control of diseases and mortality are important methods to improve indigenous chicken production at household level. Family chicken producers should be trained on how to improve housing, nutrition, and disease control practices. They should also be supported and experienced on how to reduce the identified constraints through improved biosecurity and vaccination against diseases such as NCD. Efforts should be made to make the delivery of heat-stable and easily administered vaccines and drugs to these remote areas easier and to verify the effectiveness and the dosages of some traditionally used herbal medicines. The veterinary services need to be strengthened to control indigenous chicken diseases at household level. Research and extension efforts should be directed at the identified constraints.
