**2. Wildlife veterinarians and conservation medicine**

In the past, the primary role of wildlife veterinarians was the intervention and management of free-ranging populations experiencing a health crisis [14]. Epidemic wildlife disease was mainly addressed due to its zoonotic menace (e.g., rabies, brucellosis and tuberculosis) and its harmful outcome in the health of domestic animals or game species considered economically relevant [14, 15]. In the meantime, veterinarians from zoological institutions focused on the *ex-situ* individual, providing healthcare and ensuring compliance of welfare criteria for captive collections while their main part in wildlife conservation projects was considered to be the chemical immobilization of animals in order to enable research [4, 15]. Presently, differences in the role of wildlife and zoo veterinarians are fading as a result of the expansion of the role of the latest in conservation efforts. Such tendency was inevitable due to marked changes in zoo's missionary priorities and an increase in the movement of animals between facilities or for intended release in the wild [2, 3]. When it comes to decide whether to prioritize the interests or rights of animals individually or to focus on the global viability and health of populations and species in specific situations zoological veterinarians are those in the best position to offer a balanced view concerning what the best is for the animals, either from an individual or population perspective. They are expected to actively promote and safeguard animal welfare on the grounds of scientifically justified practices which encompasses a wide range of medical activities, summarized in **Table 1** [16].

#### **2.1 Zoological institutions' evolution and current missions**

Zoological institutions have served many different purposes and undergone a remarkable evolution throughout the years until the present days. The first

**121**

protect.

*Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare*

• Scientific biological data collection, analysis and management

• Management of emerging disease and health crisis intervention

• Interdisciplinary collaboration in conservative efforts

• In situ and ex-situ reproductive and health management of threatened species

• Research on zoonotic, anthropozoonotic and interspecies transmission of disease

• Guidelines and policy development at local, national and international levels • Training of field personnel to expand their skills in addressing wildlife health issues

• Active participation in captive breeding programs

• Health assessment, surveillance and log-term monitoring for feral and domestic animal populations

• Improvement of safety and efficiency of methods of animal handling and secure addressing of other

• Active participation and inspection of zoological management decisions such as husbandry, nutrition,

• Disease risk analysis and creation of health screening and quarantine protocols for wildlife translocation

• Identification of critical health factors with impact on wildlife population dynamics • Development and enforcement of new health care technologies and methodologies • Provision of preventive, diagnostic and therapeutic health care for wildlife species

models of modern zoos emerged during 18th century, a period known as "Age of Enlightenment" and characterized by educational and scientific endeavors such as animal behavior and anatomy research, which brought a new perspective and goal to the outdated "Menageries" [17]. In the 1970s public opinion began to change and society become more sensitive to the ethical concepts of environmental and animal welfare, leading to the emergence of movements which drove zoos to develop new intentional statements. Such intentions would emphasize the conservation of endangered species, animal welfare and more naturalistic exhibits' construction,

*Applied veterinary medicine and research in supporting both ex-situ and in-situ conservation programs.*

In this day and age, modern zoos have a far more important role and are beyond

Currently, there are a number of institutions which follow a professional code of ethics and are responsible for accrediting modern zoos as well as promoting program coordination and cooperation between zoological gardens and aquariums worldwide. They provide its members with services that meet the highest standards and best practices in animal care, and support scientific research, conservation, and public engagement [22]. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), for example, is the unifying organization of the zoological community (including more than 300 members) and the founding member of IUCN [23]. All member

the old tight and empty iron barred cages with concrete floors. Despite the fact that they are still profitable and recreational centers, they are now driven by a new set of missions and ethical principles: education and public awareness, scientific research, and reproduction/conservation of endangered species along with the preservation of their habitats [19, 20]. In order to overcome a still widespread infamous reputation which infers that zoos are prisons, holding captive animals for the amusement of humans in conditions which are fully inadequate to ensure their quality of life [21], it is imperative that these missions establish an ethical commitment to one another, so they can ensure the well- being of the animals intended to

turning the entertainment of visitors into a secondary objective [18].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

within park borders

projects

**Table 1.**

ethical and welfare concerns

animal shipment and pest control


#### **Table 1.**

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

the consequences of animal diseases to human communities, they also encompass the protection of functional and integrated ecosystems, applying their skills and scientific

Modern zoos and aquariums have a responsibility towards the animals under their protection, through their whole life stages. Captivity can affect drastically animal behavior. By confining animals to a cage or enclosure, we reduce the complexity of their environment, severely narrowing the natural control they should detain over it and restricting the range of behaviors they are able to exhibit [7]. Where animals have very limited choices we are the ones planning almost all aspects of their life (e.g., feeding schedules, what to eat, where to sleep, who to live or to reproduce with). Effects of sensory deprivation and physical variety in the environment may result in aggression, boredom, anxiety, frustration and, ultimately, both physical and physiological illness [8]. Furthermore, preservation of core biological behaviors is essential [to the survival of the individuals targeted for release and reintroduction in the wild and, therefore, for the success of conservation programs [9] Thus, captive establishments have an ethical and legal obligation to provide for the holistic welfare of all animals under their protection. They should work in an organized way in order to achieve high standards of animal welfare (AW), comply with animals' wide range of needs and minimize the incidence of negative states while promoting positive ones [10]. This involves providing: (1) appropriate, safe and naturalistic environments; (2) proper diet; (3) adequate veterinary care; (4) appropriate social contact and (5) environmental enrichment [10, 11]. Overall assessment AW is by no means straightforward and should be carried out in a scientific and objective way, avoiding anthropomorphism and taking no account of ethical topics about the

knowledge on the emerging field of Conservation Medicine [5, 6].

practices or conditions being compared in its evaluation [12, 13].

In the past, the primary role of wildlife veterinarians was the intervention and management of free-ranging populations experiencing a health crisis [14]. Epidemic wildlife disease was mainly addressed due to its zoonotic menace (e.g., rabies, brucellosis and tuberculosis) and its harmful outcome in the health of domestic animals or game species considered economically relevant [14, 15]. In the meantime, veterinarians from zoological institutions focused on the *ex-situ* individual, providing healthcare and ensuring compliance of welfare criteria for captive collections while their main part in wildlife conservation projects was considered to be the chemical immobilization of animals in order to enable research [4, 15]. Presently, differences in the role of wildlife and zoo veterinarians are fading as a result of the expansion of the role of the latest in conservation efforts. Such tendency was inevitable due to marked changes in zoo's missionary priorities and an increase in the movement of animals between facilities or for intended release in the wild [2, 3]. When it comes to decide whether to prioritize the interests or rights of animals individually or to focus on the global viability and health of populations and species in specific situations zoological veterinarians are those in the best position to offer a balanced view concerning what the best is for the animals, either from an individual or population perspective. They are expected to actively promote and safeguard animal welfare on the grounds of scientifically justified practices which

encompasses a wide range of medical activities, summarized in **Table 1** [16].

Zoological institutions have served many different purposes and undergone a remarkable evolution throughout the years until the present days. The first

**2.1 Zoological institutions' evolution and current missions**

**2. Wildlife veterinarians and conservation medicine**

**120**

*Applied veterinary medicine and research in supporting both ex-situ and in-situ conservation programs.*

models of modern zoos emerged during 18th century, a period known as "Age of Enlightenment" and characterized by educational and scientific endeavors such as animal behavior and anatomy research, which brought a new perspective and goal to the outdated "Menageries" [17]. In the 1970s public opinion began to change and society become more sensitive to the ethical concepts of environmental and animal welfare, leading to the emergence of movements which drove zoos to develop new intentional statements. Such intentions would emphasize the conservation of endangered species, animal welfare and more naturalistic exhibits' construction, turning the entertainment of visitors into a secondary objective [18].

In this day and age, modern zoos have a far more important role and are beyond the old tight and empty iron barred cages with concrete floors. Despite the fact that they are still profitable and recreational centers, they are now driven by a new set of missions and ethical principles: education and public awareness, scientific research, and reproduction/conservation of endangered species along with the preservation of their habitats [19, 20]. In order to overcome a still widespread infamous reputation which infers that zoos are prisons, holding captive animals for the amusement of humans in conditions which are fully inadequate to ensure their quality of life [21], it is imperative that these missions establish an ethical commitment to one another, so they can ensure the well- being of the animals intended to protect.

Currently, there are a number of institutions which follow a professional code of ethics and are responsible for accrediting modern zoos as well as promoting program coordination and cooperation between zoological gardens and aquariums worldwide. They provide its members with services that meet the highest standards and best practices in animal care, and support scientific research, conservation, and public engagement [22]. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA), for example, is the unifying organization of the zoological community (including more than 300 members) and the founding member of IUCN [23]. All member

institutions have established Taxon Advisory Groups (TAG) for all the different species of animals that are kept in zoos and aquariums. Each TAG focuses on the sustainability and conservation needs of an entire taxa and develops a Regional Collection Plan accordingly, which identifies essential conservative and research goals, develops an action plan and liberates specific recommendations for ex situ and in situ population management [23]. TAG's are composed by professional specialists who are also responsible for advising, managing and supporting cooperative animal management programs like Species Survival Plans (SSP), European Endangered species Programs (EEP) and international Studbooks (SB) [11, 22]. Most endangered species are part of cooperative international and scientifically managed breeding programs whose final goal is to sustain populations that are healthy, genetically viable, demographically stable and capable of self-reproduction, so they can serve as a "gene pool" and surplus for eventual reintroduction in their natural habitat [24, 25].

Accredited zoological institutions ought to have veterinary clinicians working closely with a variety of other institution's organizational staff (such as animal care providers; endocrinology, behavioral or nutritional field specialists; ecologists; regulatory board of directors; and even educational, marketing or facility design departments) and who actively participate in management decisions [2, 15]. Clear communication among the different interest groups existing within a zoological institution allows for the creation of holistic medical programs whose lead foundation is preventive medicine and through which animals can be regarded as one population/community, while still having their individual needs attended [26]. Keeper staff should be trained for clinical health assessment, so they could be better qualified at understanding, identifying and promptly reporting any signs of injury or abnormal behavior that could indicate early disease stages [2]. All data collected and medical records should be condensed in databases like Medical Animal Record Keeping System (MedARKS) or Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS), for cooperative consultancy of disease occurrence and share of information between institutions at a global level. A standardized, computerized medical record-keeping system is a useful tool for management of health care and husbandry practices. By documenting and analyzing medical information that is easily assessed (e.g., clinical notes, treatments, anesthesia, parasitology) it can help future disease assessment or comparison with other populations [27]. Complete reports of necropsies on collection animals should be kept as well, once they can provide information about species anatomy that has great value for surgical procedures.

One of the most exalted contributions of the zoological veterinarian nowadays is its aid in successful captive breeding programs. Apart from securing animal general health, the veterinarian is able to access reproductive health and behavior, monitor breeding cycles, establish management protocols, help in implementing artificial reproductive techniques and effectively control selective reproduction, with resource to permanent or reversible contraceptive methods [2, 3, 14, 15]. Despite the practical and financial difficulties inherent to breeding programs [28], the extremely small capacity of zoos and the relatively uncommon and unsuccessful levels of reintroduction of propagated species, one must not depreciate the importance of zoo's conservative efforts and its ability to reproduce key species which have no other preservation options [5]. In recent years, zoos have bred about 19% of all known mammals' species and at least 9% of the birds [28]. International Studbooks are documents where all records and data relevant to the whole captive population of a certain species integrated in a breeding program, are compiled and continuously updated [23]. They will provide vital information on pedigree and breeding history of individual animals along with several changes in captive populations, and they will assist with references on pairing choices in order to ensure the

**123**

**Table 2.**

husbandry system.

vigor

comfortable resting area

the animal's own kind

*Veterinarian's Role in Conservation Medicine and Animal Welfare*

maximal genetic diversity within the population. These references will

recommend which individuals should breed with whom, how often and where [23, 29, 30]. Studbooks also recommend breeding restrictions in order to avoid future uncontrolled population expansion and therefore achieve stability [24, 30].

**3. Veterinarians' role in animal welfare and behavioral assessment**

The veterinary works under an ethical code of professional conduct which implies a commitment with integrated principles of animal welfare and the individual responsibility of ensuring a rational enforcement of the "Five Freedoms" (**Table 2**). All animals must be treated with respect, dignity and compassion as well as with thoughtful consideration for their species-typical biology and behavior [31]. Despite significant advances concerning the animal welfare (AW) topic through recent years, the majority of the research conducted has involved farm and domesticated animals [32, 33]. Zoological collections still include many poorly understood species as well as individuals with different life experiences and particular temperaments [32]. Animal welfare is a wide multi-disciplinary concept for which many definitions have been proposed. Animal welfare as a scientific field started with the Brambell Report on the welfare of intensively farmed animals, issued by the British government in 1965 [34] and later revised by the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) in 1979, having resulted in the decree of five formalized and rightful freedoms that would form a logical and comprehensive framework for analysis of animal welfare [35]. Farm Animal Welfare Council claims that the welfare of an animal includes both its physical fitness and mental state and that "any animal kept by man, must at least, be protected from unnecessary suffering". Webster [36] considers that although the "absolute attainment of all five freedoms is unrealistic", they still represent an "attempt to make the best of a complex and difficult situation". Some of these freedoms, like the freedom from fear and distress or freedom from pain, are anthropocentric constructs. Fear and pain are normal and essential in appropriate situations, where they work as natural defense mechanisms and may have adaptive and fitness value [37]. Conclusively, the freedoms define "ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare" [35] and are best viewed as useful and practical principles that provide the basic philosophy to minimize suffering and promote a state of good welfare and assessment of any

Today, AW can be scientifically assessed to determine the quality of life of individuals, and it implies the integration of the animal's biological function, as well as the subjective emotions and sensations it experiences as a result of the surrounding environment [10]. Consequently, the individual's health is highlighted as a "state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" [38]. Broom [39] also utters that "The welfare of an individual is

1.**Freedom from hunger and thirst—**by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and

4.**Freedom to express normal behavior—**by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of

5.**Freedom from fear and distress—**by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering

2.**Freedom from discomfort—**by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a

3.**Freedom from pain, injury or disease—**by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment

*The "Five Freedoms" which constitute the primary basic principles for animal welfare.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84173*

*Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology*

their natural habitat [24, 25].

institutions have established Taxon Advisory Groups (TAG) for all the different species of animals that are kept in zoos and aquariums. Each TAG focuses on the sustainability and conservation needs of an entire taxa and develops a Regional Collection Plan accordingly, which identifies essential conservative and research goals, develops an action plan and liberates specific recommendations for ex situ and in situ population management [23]. TAG's are composed by professional specialists who are also responsible for advising, managing and supporting cooperative animal management programs like Species Survival Plans (SSP), European Endangered species Programs (EEP) and international Studbooks (SB) [11, 22]. Most endangered species are part of cooperative international and scientifically managed breeding programs whose final goal is to sustain populations that are healthy, genetically viable, demographically stable and capable of self-reproduction, so they can serve as a "gene pool" and surplus for eventual reintroduction in

Accredited zoological institutions ought to have veterinary clinicians working closely with a variety of other institution's organizational staff (such as animal care providers; endocrinology, behavioral or nutritional field specialists; ecologists; regulatory board of directors; and even educational, marketing or facility design departments) and who actively participate in management decisions [2, 15]. Clear communication among the different interest groups existing within a zoological institution allows for the creation of holistic medical programs whose lead foundation is preventive medicine and through which animals can be regarded as one population/community, while still having their individual needs attended [26]. Keeper staff should be trained for clinical health assessment, so they could be better qualified at understanding, identifying and promptly reporting any signs of injury or abnormal behavior that could indicate early disease stages [2]. All data collected and medical records should be condensed in databases like Medical Animal Record Keeping System (MedARKS) or Zoological Information Management System (ZIMS), for cooperative consultancy of disease occurrence and share of information between institutions at a global level. A standardized, computerized medical record-keeping system is a useful tool for management of health care and husbandry practices. By documenting and analyzing medical information that is easily assessed (e.g., clinical notes, treatments, anesthesia, parasitology) it can help future disease assessment or comparison with other populations [27]. Complete reports of necropsies on collection animals should be kept as well, once they can provide information about species anatomy that has great value for surgical procedures. One of the most exalted contributions of the zoological veterinarian nowadays is its aid in successful captive breeding programs. Apart from securing animal general health, the veterinarian is able to access reproductive health and behavior, monitor breeding cycles, establish management protocols, help in implementing artificial reproductive techniques and effectively control selective reproduction, with resource to permanent or reversible contraceptive methods [2, 3, 14, 15]. Despite the practical and financial difficulties inherent to breeding programs [28], the extremely small capacity of zoos and the relatively uncommon and unsuccessful levels of reintroduction of propagated species, one must not depreciate the importance of zoo's conservative efforts and its ability to reproduce key species which have no other preservation options [5]. In recent years, zoos have bred about 19% of all known mammals' species and at least 9% of the birds [28]. International Studbooks are documents where all records and data relevant to the whole captive population of a certain species integrated in a breeding program, are compiled and continuously updated [23]. They will provide vital information on pedigree and breeding history of individual animals along with several changes in captive populations, and they will assist with references on pairing choices in order to ensure the

**122**

maximal genetic diversity within the population. These references will recommend which individuals should breed with whom, how often and where [23, 29, 30]. Studbooks also recommend breeding restrictions in order to avoid future uncontrolled population expansion and therefore achieve stability [24, 30].
