**3. Toxicological implications-**

The effect of iron deficiency on blood concentrations of other divalent metals has several clinical- and toxicological implications. First, the present paper emphasizes the importance of assessing the iron level and hematologic status of individuals for studies of environmental exposure to divalent metals (manganese, lead, and cadmium) in general populations. In particular, given the high prevalence of iron deficiency in children, iron deficiency status must be considered as- an important factor affecting their susceptibility to heavy metal toxicity, especially for environmental health risk assessments of low exposure to these toxic metals. Second, our results also emphasize that exposure to neurotoxic metals may aggravate iron-related developmental and behavioral problems in children and lead to subclinical neuropsychological problems in adults.

### **4. Conclusions-**

The apical divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) and the iron exporter ferroportin 1 (FPN1) are responsible for the absorption of iron and other divalent metals (manganese, lead, and cadmium). Thus, an iron-deficient diet can lead to excess absorption of manganese, lead, and cadmium, and high blood concentrations of these metals. Relative to males and postmenopausal women, females of childbearing age have higher blood concentrations of manganese because of their lower blood concentrations of ferritin. Several previous studies reported a temporal relationship between iron deficiency and increased blood lead concentrations in children. Blood cadmium concentrations are higher in females of childbearing age because of their lower ferritin concentrations than in men.

### **Conflict of interest-**

The author declares no conflicts of interest.-

## **Author details-**

Yangho Kim

Address all correspondence to: yanghokm@ulsan.ac.kr

Departments of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Ulsan University Hospital, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Ulsan, South Korea

### **References**


National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data. Environmental Research. 2012;**118**:124-129


**Chapter 4**

**Provisional chapter**

**Vegetal Sources of Iron**

**Vegetal Sources of Iron**

Elia Hermila Valdes-Miramontes,

Elia Hermila Valdes-Miramontes,

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79834

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Ramon Rodriguez-Macias and Mario Ruiz-Lopez

Ramon Rodriguez-Macias and Mario Ruiz-Lopez

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79834

Iron deficiency anemia is a global public health problem. According to the World Health Organization, anemia affects 1620 million of people worldwide, which corresponds to 28% of the population. Fifty percent of the anemia cases are attributed to low iron intake. Among the main sources of iron from vegetable origin are legumes, such as beans, lentils, soybeans, lupin, some vegetables such as spinach, and some dehydrated fruits. Nonhemic iron is mainly from legumes and is the most important source of this mineral in the diet of developing countries' population, but its bioavailability is very variable. Consequently, the fortification of foods with high and cheap iron sources is a practical way to prevent its deficiency. Some studies have shown that the roots of some legumes, especially nitrogen fixers, accumulate a significant amount of iron mainly in the nodule proteins. The purpose of this chapter is to present the current knowledge of novel sources of plant-based hemic iron with a high bioavailability to be used in food fortification.

Iron deficiency affects an important part of the human population; it is the most common nutritional disorder and causes approximately 50% of anemia cases. The groups most likely to have iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia are infants, young children, adolescents, premenopausal women, and especially pregnant women. The recommended iron intake depends on the individual's health status, age, and sex. However, some sociodemographic factors such as race or ethnicity, socioeconomic status, eating habits, etc. have an influence on the risk of developing anemia. Iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia have undesirable physiological consequences especially in children, having an impact on cognitive performance and growth [1].

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Keywords:** plants, iron, anemia, fortification

**Chapter 4** 
