Preface

Chapter 7 **Mathematical Model as a Tool for the Control of Vector-Borne**

Meksianis Z. Ndii, Eti D. Wiraningsih, Nursanti Anggriani and Asep

Om Parkash, Punam Kumari, Vasu Deva, Sham Lal, Javed Ahmed Ujjan, Syed Mehmood Qadir, Fateh Muhammad Soomro, Rani

Jhon Carlos Castaño-Osorio, Alejandra María Giraldo-Garcia and

**Diseases: Wolbachia Example 113**

Chapter 8 **New Tools for Dengue Diagnostics 131**

Faryal and Nisar Ahmed Kanhar

Maria Isabel Giraldo

Chapter 9 **Current Status of Vaccines against Dengue Virus 145**

K. Supriatna

**VI** Contents

Mosquito-borne diseases, as many other infectious diseases, have shaped the history of soci‐ eties. For centuries, these diseases have taken their toll on human health and still stand to‐ day as a formidable threat to public health. Terms such as Chikungunya, Mayaro, Rift Valley Fever, West Nile, among others, have claimed their place in the collective fear, be‐ coming omnipresent reminders that epidemics of little known diseases can occur unexpect‐ edly and with serious consequences.

As we witness the progress in the reversing trends of Malaria, the nimble mosquito remains today as the most lethal animal on this planet, evolving and adapting to new environments, populations, and pathogenic agents. As a result, the threat evolves, showing its new face in the form of emerging viral mosquito-borne diseases, which in the last three decades have exposed the weaknesses in our health systems for adapting in a similar fashion. Our reliance on stand‐ ard approaches for vector control, lack of innovation, and the slow incorporation of technology have translated, as a predictable consequence, in our failure in preventing the appearance of seasonal epidemics in regions where nearly two thirds of the human population inhabit.

Since its recognition as a potentially lethal disease in the 1950s, dengue fever has been the model for designing prevention and control strategies that are applicable to other mosquitoborne diseases, especially those transmitted by *Aedes ssp.* mosquitoes. As a disease, dengue fever has challenged scientists by neutralizing most attempts to bring it into control. From denial of natural niches to insecticides, each and every new strategy has proven ineffective to sustain long-term trends in the number of cases. Nonetheless, groundbreaking disciplines such as biotechnology and computing have, in the last decade, brought promising tools that add to the current arsenal, creating a potential critical mass that might finally solve the puz‐ zle posed by dengue fever control.

*Dengue Fever - a Resilient Threat in the Face of Innovation* was born with the premise of reviewing the latest updates on dengue fever and other mosquito-borne diseases. The first part of the book covers basic aspects of dengue fever such as the general overview of dengue fever as a public health problem, burden of disease, vector ecology, and the diagnostic tools currently available. The second part of the book focuses on new tools and approaches for surveillance and vector control, which have surpassed the phase of design and are being evaluated on the field, hopefully to be incorporated in the short term as part of the Integrated Vector Manage‐ ment.

In our increasingly globalized world, which hosts the most digitally connected population in history, collaborative work is more important than ever to achieve success. Consequently,

I wish to thank my colleagues from the most diverse regions of the world who, by sharing their invaluable contributions, helped me to compile this work, driven by their unquestiona‐ ble commitment in the fight against dengue fever. I share this edition with Dr. Miguel Be‐ tancourt-Cravioto and Dr. Roberto Tapia-Conyer, whose critical comments and vast experience provided me with guidance for shaping this book with a format intended to be useful for non-specialized readers and researchers alike.

#### **Jorge Abelardo Falcón-Lezama, PhD.**

Mexican Public Health Association Mexico City, Mexico **Section 1**

**Current Panorama of Dengue Fever**

**Miguel Betancourt-Cravioto, DrPH.** Mexican Public Health Association Mexico City, Mexico

> **Roberto Tapia-Conyer, DrSc.** National University of Mexico Mexico City, Mexico

**Current Panorama of Dengue Fever**

I wish to thank my colleagues from the most diverse regions of the world who, by sharing their invaluable contributions, helped me to compile this work, driven by their unquestiona‐ ble commitment in the fight against dengue fever. I share this edition with Dr. Miguel Be‐ tancourt-Cravioto and Dr. Roberto Tapia-Conyer, whose critical comments and vast experience provided me with guidance for shaping this book with a format intended to be

> **Jorge Abelardo Falcón-Lezama, PhD.** Mexican Public Health Association

**Miguel Betancourt-Cravioto, DrPH.** Mexican Public Health Association

Mexico City, Mexico

Mexico City, Mexico

Mexico City, Mexico

**Roberto Tapia-Conyer, DrSc.** National University of Mexico

useful for non-specialized readers and researchers alike.

VIII Preface

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**Dengue Fever: A General Perspective**

**Dengue Fever: A General Perspective**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.81277

Dengue Fever or commonly known as Dengue, a mosquito-borne arboviral infection has emerged as havoc around the globe. Annually, about 50 million infections are reported, resulting in 22,000 deaths and almost 2.5 billion people are reported living at risk. Dengue infection is caused by Dengue Virus (DENV), which is a member of genus Flavivirus and comprised of ten proteins; three proteins, capsid (C), membrane (M), and envelope (E), play structural role and seven are identified as non-structural that direct DENV replication. Four distinct serotypes: DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4 are transmitted via *Aedes* mosquitoes. Clinically, Dengue patients can be categorized into three groups according to WHO 2009 revised classification. Typical symptoms of dengue include: extreme fatigue; sudden fever (from 3-7 days), headache, joint, muscle, and back pain; vomiting and diarrhea, appetite loss; skin rash along minor bleeding. *Aedes aegypti* is geographically distributed in tropical areas and breeds in artificially filled water containers i.e. drums, tyres, flower vases plastic food containers, tin cans, etc. Due to four viral serotypes and non-availability of the model animal for dengue, producing vaccines is a challenging task. Thus, Dengue can be managed using various vector control strategies through physical,

**Keywords:** dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever, dengue shock syndrome,

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Muhammad Kashif Zahoor, Azhar Rasul, Muhammad Asif Zahoor, Iqra Sarfraz, Muhammad Zulhussnain, Rizwan Rasool, Humara Naz Majeed, Farhat Jabeen and

Humara Naz Majeed, Farhat Jabeen

Muhammad Kashif Zahoor, Azhar Rasul, Muhammad Asif Zahoor, Iqra Sarfraz, Muhammad Zulhussnain, Rizwan Rasool,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81277

chemical and biological means.

*Aedes aegypti*, DEN virus

Kanwal Ranian

and Kanwal Ranian

**Abstract**

#### **Dengue Fever: A General Perspective Dengue Fever: A General Perspective**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.81277

Muhammad Kashif Zahoor, Azhar Rasul, Muhammad Asif Zahoor, Iqra Sarfraz, Muhammad Zulhussnain, Rizwan Rasool, Humara Naz Majeed, Farhat Jabeen and Kanwal Ranian Muhammad Kashif Zahoor, Azhar Rasul, Muhammad Asif Zahoor, Iqra Sarfraz, Muhammad Zulhussnain, Rizwan Rasool, Humara Naz Majeed, Farhat Jabeen and Kanwal Ranian

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81277

#### **Abstract**

Dengue Fever or commonly known as Dengue, a mosquito-borne arboviral infection has emerged as havoc around the globe. Annually, about 50 million infections are reported, resulting in 22,000 deaths and almost 2.5 billion people are reported living at risk. Dengue infection is caused by Dengue Virus (DENV), which is a member of genus Flavivirus and comprised of ten proteins; three proteins, capsid (C), membrane (M), and envelope (E), play structural role and seven are identified as non-structural that direct DENV replication. Four distinct serotypes: DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4 are transmitted via *Aedes* mosquitoes. Clinically, Dengue patients can be categorized into three groups according to WHO 2009 revised classification. Typical symptoms of dengue include: extreme fatigue; sudden fever (from 3-7 days), headache, joint, muscle, and back pain; vomiting and diarrhea, appetite loss; skin rash along minor bleeding. *Aedes aegypti* is geographically distributed in tropical areas and breeds in artificially filled water containers i.e. drums, tyres, flower vases plastic food containers, tin cans, etc. Due to four viral serotypes and non-availability of the model animal for dengue, producing vaccines is a challenging task. Thus, Dengue can be managed using various vector control strategies through physical, chemical and biological means.

**Keywords:** dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever, dengue shock syndrome, *Aedes aegypti*, DEN virus

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
