We are IntechOpen, the world's leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists

4,500+

Open access books available

118,000+

International authors and editors

130M+

Downloads

Our authors are among the

Top 1%

most cited scientists

12.2%

Contributors from top 500 universities

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)

### Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com

Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com

## Meet the editor

Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology,

Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as *Journal of Alzheimer's Disease*, *Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer*, *Biol. Chem.*, *J. Biomed. Sci.*, and *Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine*. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski's research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/ or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.

Contents

**Section 1**

**Section 2**

Diabetic Rats

**Section 3**

*by Leszek Szablewski*

Introductory Chapter: Glucose Transporters

Molecular Basis of Blood Glucose Regulation

*by Asma Ahmed and Noman Khalique*

*Józef Drzewoski and Agnieszka Śliwińska*

Carbohydrate Metabolism in Hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia: Essential Clinical Guidelines

Symptoms of Hypoglycaemia

*by Thenmozhi Paluchamy*

*by María L. Kennedy and Miguel A. Campuzano-Bublitz*

*by Panagiota Loumpardia and Mohammed S.B. Huda*

**Preface III**

Introduction **1**

**Chapter 1 3**

Regulation of Glucose Levels **9**

**Chapter 2 11**

**Chapter 3 37**

**Chapter 4 55**

Hypoglycemia **65**

**Chapter 5 67**

**Chapter 6 79**

**Chapter 7 89**

Role of PI3K/AKT Pathway in Insulin-Mediated Glucose Uptake

*by Ewa Świderska, Justyna Strycharz, Adam Wróblewski, Janusz Szemraj,* 

Cardiovascular and Biochemical Responses in Exercise Recuperation in

*by Luiz Augusto da Silva, Jéssica Wouk and Vinicius Muller Reis Weber*

### Contents



Preface

The main and preferred source of energy for the body is glucose. Therefore, most tissues and organs need a constant supply of glucose. The low blood concentrations of glucose can cause several pathologies and diseases such as seizures and loss of consciousness. Hypoglycemia may also cause death. On the other hand, long-term high glucose levels, hyperglycemia, can cause blindness, renal failure, cardiac and peripheral vascular disease, and neuropathy. Therefore, blood glucose concentrations need to be maintained within narrow limits and are carefully regulated to around 90 mg/mL (5 mM). The process of maintaining blood glucose at a steady state is called glucose homeostasis. This is achieved through a balance of the rate of consumption of dietary carbohydrates, utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, and the loss of glucose through the kidney tubule. The liver and kidney also play a role in glucose homeostasis. A major role in glucose homeostasis is played by the liver by maintaining a balance between the uptake and storage of glucose via glycogenesis, and the release of glucose via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. The body can adjust blood glucose levels by a variety of cellular mechanisms. In this process, a very important role is played by external signals conveyed by hormones, cytokines, and so on. In the past several years, the knowledge of regulation of blood glucose levels, glucose homeostasis, and diseases due to disturbances in glucose homeostasis, has been growing. This book aims to provide an overview on the topic of blood glucose levels in health and diseases. The authors discuss this process from different aspects to enhance the understanding of glucose homeostasis in the human body.

This book contains four sections. Section 1 contains only one chapter and describes the general characteristics of glucose transporters. Section 2 contains chapters in which authors describe mechanisms of regulation of blood glucose levels. These chapters include information on the molecular basis of blood glucose regulation, and role of PI3K/AKT in insulin-mediated glucose uptake. Section 3 focuses on low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia). The authors describe pathologies due to hypoglycemia, as well as the symptoms and signals of this pathological state. Section 4 presents the influence of lifestyle on metabolic syndromes. This dependence is

I would like to thank Mr. Gordan Tot for his great efforts in the book planning and

Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology,

**Leszek Szablewski**

Medical University of Warsaw,

Professor,

Poland

described on the basis of Ramadan fasting.

editing during the process of book publication.
