**4.1 Nongenetic factors**

Fiber producing animals majorly divided into two categories:


The most important characteristics of cashmere are means of fiber diameter, length, and color. Definition of cashmere quality depends on yield, diameter, length, and color. Microscopic measurements of fiber characteristics are projection microscope and OFDA. The first method, although it is a basic method, is very time-consuming and can have an operator bias. The second method of OFDA is a very fast method that measures about 2000 fibers in a few minutes. Mean fiber diameter, standard deviation, and percentage of hair could be measured rapidly with OFDA.

**Figure 13.** *Cashmere and hair fibers under light microscopy – University of Tabriz.*

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*New Look on an Ancient Fiber of Cashmere DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89814*

Microscopic study of cashmere shows us the specific structures of fine fibers and modulation forms. Furthermore we can distinguish different types of fibers that

Characteristics of Iranian cashmere as an example of cashmere goat are

The diameter, length, color, and amount of impurities are the factors that affect cashmere price. High mean fiber diameter, colored fibers, short length of fiber, hair, and high percentage of impurities are factors which influence the prices of Iranian cashmere. Large changes in price of raw cashmere, low technology of cashmere end-products in the country, and lack of home market for cashmere products are the problems that face the cashmere goat breeding. A solution is upgrading the technologies related to cashmere processing, and this must be accompanied with collaboration of farmers. Also it must conserve genetic resources of cashmere goats and utilize animal breeding techniques for decreasing mean fiber diameter. Environment situation has some effects on cashmere growth. These effects are including nutrition and different proteins, energy to protein ratio, body condition score, body size, vitamins, minerals and hormones, The effect of fetal feeding on follicle formation during pregnancy period. Non genetic effects on cashmere could be age, flock, harvest technique, color, year, season, shedding, parasites, location of body, physiological state of pregnancy and lactation. For example, effect of sex, age, and flocks on cashmere diameter and staple length of Raieni goats has been studied by Shamsaddini et al. [7]. Interaction of sex and age has significantly effect on cashmere characteristics (P < 0.05) staple length between station and nomadic goats.

may be mixed within cashmere tops of fabrics (**Figures 13–15**).

• Raw fleece weight: 540 gr (100–700 gr)

*Cashmere, light and dark gray, 100x. University of Tabriz.*

• Fiber curvature of 62.9 ± 8.5°/mm

• Staple length of 54.2 ± 7.0 mm

• Mean fiber diameter 19.7 ± 1.5 μm, range of 17–21

• Fiber diameter standard deviation of 4.5 ± 0.6 μm,

measured as [6]:

**Figure 15.**

• Yield: 56.5 ± 12.2%

**Figure 14.** *Cotton (left), true wool (middle) and colored (right) carpet wool fibers. University of Tabriz.*

*Goats (Capra) - From Ancient to Modern*

**4. Genetic and nongenetic effects**

**4.1 Nongenetic factors**

with OFDA.

traits of follicles, e.g., secondary to primary ratio, percentage of inactive secondary

2 Two-coat: (a) Outer coat for summer, physical protection, and (b) inner coat for winter thermal insulation, e.g., cashmere goats, Angora rabbits, camel, wild sheep.

The most important characteristics of cashmere are means of fiber diameter, length, and color. Definition of cashmere quality depends on yield, diameter, length, and color. Microscopic measurements of fiber characteristics are projection microscope and OFDA. The first method, although it is a basic method, is very time-consuming and can have an operator bias. The second method of OFDA is a very fast method that measures about 2000 fibers in a few minutes. Mean fiber diameter, standard deviation, and percentage of hair could be measured rapidly

follicles, diameter of follicles and density of follicles per surface of skin.

Fiber producing animals majorly divided into two categories:

*Cotton (left), true wool (middle) and colored (right) carpet wool fibers. University of Tabriz.*

*Cashmere and hair fibers under light microscopy – University of Tabriz.*

1 One-coat (e.g., Angora goats, Merinos sheep)

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**Figure 14.**

**Figure 13.**

**Figure 15.** *Cashmere, light and dark gray, 100x. University of Tabriz.*

Microscopic study of cashmere shows us the specific structures of fine fibers and modulation forms. Furthermore we can distinguish different types of fibers that may be mixed within cashmere tops of fabrics (**Figures 13–15**).

Characteristics of Iranian cashmere as an example of cashmere goat are measured as [6]:


The diameter, length, color, and amount of impurities are the factors that affect cashmere price. High mean fiber diameter, colored fibers, short length of fiber, hair, and high percentage of impurities are factors which influence the prices of Iranian cashmere. Large changes in price of raw cashmere, low technology of cashmere end-products in the country, and lack of home market for cashmere products are the problems that face the cashmere goat breeding. A solution is upgrading the technologies related to cashmere processing, and this must be accompanied with collaboration of farmers. Also it must conserve genetic resources of cashmere goats and utilize animal breeding techniques for decreasing mean fiber diameter. Environment situation has some effects on cashmere growth. These effects are including nutrition and different proteins, energy to protein ratio, body condition score, body size, vitamins, minerals and hormones, The effect of fetal feeding on follicle formation during pregnancy period. Non genetic effects on cashmere could be age, flock, harvest technique, color, year, season, shedding, parasites, location of body, physiological state of pregnancy and lactation. For example, effect of sex, age, and flocks on cashmere diameter and staple length of Raieni goats has been studied by Shamsaddini et al. [7]. Interaction of sex and age has significantly effect on cashmere characteristics (P < 0.05) staple length between station and nomadic goats.

The age groups had a significant effect (P < 0.05) on coefficient of the variation of cashmere's fiber diameter. It was concluded that the first 15 days after birth is much more important to develop secondary follicles in Raeini cashmere kids and affects cashmere production of Raeini kids in the economic life span [8]. It was evident that cashmere mean fiber diameter and coefficient of variation of cashmere's fiber diameter were effected (P < 0.05) by different seasons. An outstanding researcher on the effects of nutrition on cashmere goats is B. McGregor. Readers are advised to see his article of [9].

### **4.2 Genetics**

Generally, cashmere fibers are genetically similar to those of sheep wool, same as the rules governing quantitative genetic of cashmere. For example, the main trait of fiber production, i.e., wool yield and fiber diameter, is considered as a quantitative trait. But color trait of cashmere, similar to color of wool in the classic genetic, has been considered as a categorical trait, so its distribution is different from normal. There are many researches on cashmere production that showed nearly all important traits of cashmere are genetically heritable. Therefore with selection of the best reproduction candidate among goats, we can arrive to the improvement in cashmere traits. Heritability of cashmere production traits is similar to sheep wool, so the principals of quantitative genetics could be utilized in cashmere goats. However, some differences should be notified in cashmere in comparison with wool. Fleece of cashmere goat is a double coat, so it is very different from fleece of Merinos sheep. Merino sheep has one-coat fleece, but cashmere goat has a specific type of fleece in which two different fibers exist. Scale pattern of cashmere and fine wool is different, and that is a major reference distinguishing them from each other.

### **4.3 Selection aim**

Cashmere is an ornamental product, special and luxurious, and the supply and demand in the international marketplace have influenced the domestic purchase prices of raw cashmere, and consequently the income of livestock farmers is affected by raw crude sales. The price of raw cashmere (fleece: majorly including hair and cashmere) purchase from the herd has been fluctuating every year, and as a result, their livelihood affects the breeding of cashmere goats. The consequence of this process is a challenge for genetic improvement of goats. Farmer changes his livestock composition when the price of cashmere decreasing. So he select his animals toward other traits of meat or milk prefer than cashmere.

Therefore, it is necessary to support the cashmere farmers stabilization of purchasing prices. Because farmer does not have the financial capability to pursue breeding programs and maintain breed purity in favorite of cashmere. A solutions for problems of the cashmere goat breeding is provision of scientific-technical supports and the formation of NGOs and breed associations. It must stabilize the purchase price of raw cashmere and minimize the negative effect of fluctuations in global prices on local goat production. It needs to establish cooperative factories to access more value-added products and identify domestic and foreign consumption markets. To achieve this, not only the livestock sector but also other sectors, such as textile, apparel and design, and art, should also work together in producer countries. Genetic markers has been found that help the animal breeders to use in selection of the more profitable cashmere goats. Furthermore, genome wide association studies has been started in goats which is an effective method for genetic improvement of cashmere goats.

The both method of classic best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) and new genomic BLUP could be utilized in genetic improvement of cashmere goats. The important step of application of new methods of genomic selection is to measure

**95**

**Figure 17.**

*Harvesting of cashmere with combing method (Kirghizstan, photo by Rafat).*

(**Figure 16**).

**Figure 16.**

**4.4 Cashmere harvest**

*New Look on an Ancient Fiber of Cashmere DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89814*

*M. Yasen Xinjiang Animal Science Academy Tian Kechuan).*

phenotypic traits as much as possible. There is need to record phenotype traits in cashmere goats in new area of genomic selection. The genetic improvement of cashmere goat is necessary through classic genetic and modern genomic approaches. Genetic improvement of fiber-producing animals is accelerated by new genomic provided data. In the near future, beside classic genetics, molecular genetics-based sciences such as transcriptome, SNP chip, and "marker-assisted selection" will be applied in cashmere goat's genetic breeding programs. Crossbreeding of cashmere goats with Angora goats produces a specific type of fibers with the name of "Cashghora." For example, this type of crossbreeding is currently used in Asia, for example in Kirgizstan. China has suitable experiences in genetic improvement of cashmere goats

*Liaoning cashmere goats (left) and other breeds(right) from China(with thanks for photo provided by* 

Basically, there are two methods of removing fibers from the goat's body: manual scissors and combing method. For combing method please see video MOV08863.

*New Look on an Ancient Fiber of Cashmere DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89814*

### **Figure 16.**

*Goats (Capra) - From Ancient to Modern*

**4.2 Genetics**

**4.3 Selection aim**

The age groups had a significant effect (P < 0.05) on coefficient of the variation of cashmere's fiber diameter. It was concluded that the first 15 days after birth is much more important to develop secondary follicles in Raeini cashmere kids and affects cashmere production of Raeini kids in the economic life span [8]. It was evident that cashmere mean fiber diameter and coefficient of variation of cashmere's fiber diameter were effected (P < 0.05) by different seasons. An outstanding researcher on the effects of nutrition on cashmere goats is B. McGregor. Readers are advised to see his article of [9].

Generally, cashmere fibers are genetically similar to those of sheep wool, same as the rules governing quantitative genetic of cashmere. For example, the main trait of fiber production, i.e., wool yield and fiber diameter, is considered as a quantitative trait. But color trait of cashmere, similar to color of wool in the classic genetic, has been considered as a categorical trait, so its distribution is different from normal. There are many researches on cashmere production that showed nearly all important traits of cashmere are genetically heritable. Therefore with selection of the best reproduction candidate among goats, we can arrive to the improvement in cashmere traits. Heritability of cashmere production traits is similar to sheep wool, so the principals of quantitative genetics could be utilized in cashmere goats. However, some differences should be notified in cashmere in comparison with wool. Fleece of cashmere goat is a double coat, so it is very different from fleece of Merinos sheep. Merino sheep has one-coat fleece, but cashmere goat has a specific type of fleece in which two different fibers exist. Scale pattern of cashmere and fine wool is differ-

ent, and that is a major reference distinguishing them from each other.

animals toward other traits of meat or milk prefer than cashmere.

effective method for genetic improvement of cashmere goats.

Cashmere is an ornamental product, special and luxurious, and the supply and demand in the international marketplace have influenced the domestic purchase prices of raw cashmere, and consequently the income of livestock farmers is affected by raw crude sales. The price of raw cashmere (fleece: majorly including hair and cashmere) purchase from the herd has been fluctuating every year, and as a result, their livelihood affects the breeding of cashmere goats. The consequence of this process is a challenge for genetic improvement of goats. Farmer changes his livestock composition when the price of cashmere decreasing. So he select his

Therefore, it is necessary to support the cashmere farmers stabilization of purchasing prices. Because farmer does not have the financial capability to pursue breeding programs and maintain breed purity in favorite of cashmere. A solutions for problems of the cashmere goat breeding is provision of scientific-technical supports and the formation of NGOs and breed associations. It must stabilize the purchase price of raw cashmere and minimize the negative effect of fluctuations in global prices on local goat production. It needs to establish cooperative factories to access more value-added products and identify domestic and foreign consumption markets. To achieve this, not only the livestock sector but also other sectors, such as textile, apparel and design, and art, should also work together in producer countries. Genetic markers has been found that help the animal breeders to use in selection of the more profitable cashmere goats. Furthermore, genome wide association studies has been started in goats which is an

The both method of classic best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) and new genomic BLUP could be utilized in genetic improvement of cashmere goats. The important step of application of new methods of genomic selection is to measure

**94**

*Liaoning cashmere goats (left) and other breeds(right) from China(with thanks for photo provided by M. Yasen Xinjiang Animal Science Academy Tian Kechuan).*

phenotypic traits as much as possible. There is need to record phenotype traits in cashmere goats in new area of genomic selection. The genetic improvement of cashmere goat is necessary through classic genetic and modern genomic approaches.

Genetic improvement of fiber-producing animals is accelerated by new genomic provided data. In the near future, beside classic genetics, molecular genetics-based sciences such as transcriptome, SNP chip, and "marker-assisted selection" will be applied in cashmere goat's genetic breeding programs. Crossbreeding of cashmere goats with Angora goats produces a specific type of fibers with the name of "Cashghora." For example, this type of crossbreeding is currently used in Asia, for example in Kirgizstan.

China has suitable experiences in genetic improvement of cashmere goats (**Figure 16**).

### **4.4 Cashmere harvest**

Basically, there are two methods of removing fibers from the goat's body: manual scissors and combing method. For combing method please see video MOV08863.

**Figure 17.** *Harvesting of cashmere with combing method (Kirghizstan, photo by Rafat).*

### **Figure 18.**

*Cashmere goat of Iran: Raeini breed. Left: Shedding of cashmere in spring. Middle and right: Cashmere goat covered by fabrics to protect animal from cold weather after natural shedding of cashmere in early winter, Baft, Kerman, Iran. Rafat M.Sc. Thesis.*

### **Figure 19.**

*Cover for cashmere goat to protect them after shearing in cold weather of Tabriz, Tabriz, University of Tabriz, Khalat pooshan research center.*

Scissors are used in Afghanistan, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and similar countries. The resulting harvested fleece is a mixture of cashmere and hair. Combing methods (**Figure 17**) produces more pure cashmere content among harvested fibers from animal in comparison with shearing. So the harvested fibers are mostly cashmere with less hair fibers content. Farmers that use scissors to harvest fibers, they does not paying attention to quality when buying and selling. The only trait of interest is weight of fibers. But in countries that farmers use combing method, qualitative criteria are considered when selling. Cashmere goats are very sensitive to cold weather after shearing of cashmere. So decision on the suitable time for cashmere shearing is important. Sometimes we see some animals that shed their fibers very early, so goat keepers have some technics to protect their animals from cold weather (**Figures 17–19**).
