**3. The domestication and use of goats (and other species)**

It is believed that wild animals were herded into enclosures for killing to improve on the success of hunting—images depicting this practice have been found [7]. After a time, animals that exhibited certain characteristics that would make them predisposed to domestication became accustomed to this close contact. This close association between man and animal led to the domestication [8] of some species (but not others). These 'phases of domestication' can be categorised into 'wild', 'managed' and 'domesticated' [9] states.

Jared Diamond [10] has suggested several characteristics that would predispose certain species to domestication, and these include:


In all these characteristics, the goat excels.

According to Gilbert [11], wild sheep (Ovis) and goats (Capra) were the earliest livestock domesticated during the Palaeolithic to Neolithic transition (9000–7000 B.C.E.) in northern and eastern Mesopotamia. Pigs (Sus) and cattle (Bos) were predominantly domesticated in southern Mesopotamia. Later introductions included horses (Equus 2500 B.C.E.), donkeys (Equus 4000–3000 B.C.E.) and chickens (*Gallus gallus* 1500 B.C.E.).

Recent research [12] has placed the process of the domestication of goats in the region of south-western Asia, from the eastern Mediterranean to Turkey and from the southern Levant though south-eastern Turkey and northern Syria to the high Zagros mountain pastures and arid lowland plains of Iraq and Iran. The process of domestication spanned approximately 500 years—culminating around 8000 B.C.E. Zeder and Hesse [12] identified a distinct profile of young male goat slaughter and prolonged female survivorship (or delayed slaughter of females) in herds in the upland areas of northern Iraq and north-western Iran through the analysis of goat remains. Animal production involves the practice of keeping females for breeding and slaughtering males at a younger age for meat. This is in contrast to the remains of hunted populations, which clearly show a focus on fully adult males with females and young taken only occasionally.

The ancestors of the modern goat were potentially two species, *Capra falconeri*, and the Bezoar goat, *Capra aegagrus* [13], being the most cited candidate (*Capra hircus aegagrus* is still found in its wild form in the Zagros mountains of Iran and Iraq).

Most of the domesticated animals we know today originated in the Ancient Near East. These include cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, cats, dogs, ducks, chickens, geese, horses, donkeys and mules [8]. Their use for milk, meat, fat, leather, wool, hair, draught, transportation, manure [8], cheese [9], the storage of wealth [11], eggs [9], recreational (and possibly educational) zoos [9], drugs [9] and for religious use (sacrifice, extispicy and for maintenance of the religious complex) is documented.

Sheep and goats were kept in large flocks that belonged to the state, the temple or private owners and each was branded with its owner's mark (or that of the god for which it was intended). Clearly articulated contracts between owners and shepherds have been found. Shepherds often kept all the dairy products and some of the wool as compensation for their work. Their compensation could also include a share of the growth in the flock. **Figure 1** shows terracotta tablets inscribed with the records of goatherds and cowherds [14].

Wool (from sheep) and hair (from goats) were initially plucked (pulled or combed), but shearing was practised from the middle of the second millennium. Milk was obtained from cows, sheep and goats (camels and water buffalo were also used for this purpose). Yoghurt, cheese, butter and ghee were produced. Butter was made by churning the milk in a narrow-necked jar [7] and rolled with the foot or rocked [9]. Since fresh milk spoiled rapidly, it was often only used in medicines, which would be made fresh and used immediately. **Figure 2** shows a cylinder seal from Mari with a typical agricultural scene. Many such seals have been found, which may indicate the economic activity in which the owner of the seal may have distinguished him (or her)self.

### **Figure 1.**

*Terracotta tablets inscribed with the records of goatherds (left) and cowherds (right), unearthed at Lagash, Mesopotamia, and dated to 2250–2175 B.C.E. (housed in the collection at the Louvre, Paris: [17]).*

**7**

*Goats in the Ancient Near East and Their Relationship with the Mythology, Fairytale…*

*Cylinder seal from Mari (3000–2000 B.C.E.). Top register showing milking scene, bottom register with goats,* 

*Stone panel from the central palace of Tiglath-Pileser III. Neo-Assyrian, 730–727 B.C.E. Nimrud (ancient* 

Although horses were important in battle, goats were often taken as booty (**Figure 3**)

*Goat skins used as flotation devices. Stone panel from the central palace of Tiglath-Pileser III. Neo-Assyrian,* 

and inflated goat skin bags were used in warfare as flotation devices (**Figure 4**).

*730–727 B.C.E. Nimrud (ancient Kalhu), northern Iraq (housed in the British Museum).*

Primary sources available to the modern scholar of the ANE cultures include objects, architecture and written texts that have survived environmental extremes. This investigation seeks to determine whether, if goats appear in these material

**4. Goats in the texts, art and imagery of the ANE**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82531*

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 4.**

*hero figures and eagle with lion-head.*

*Kalhu), northern Iraq (housed in the British Museum).*

*Goats in the Ancient Near East and Their Relationship with the Mythology, Fairytale… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82531*

### **Figure 2.**

*Goats (Capra) - From Ancient to Modern*

Recent research [12] has placed the process of the domestication of goats in the region of south-western Asia, from the eastern Mediterranean to Turkey and from the southern Levant though south-eastern Turkey and northern Syria to the high Zagros mountain pastures and arid lowland plains of Iraq and Iran. The process of domestication spanned approximately 500 years—culminating around 8000 B.C.E. Zeder and Hesse [12] identified a distinct profile of young male goat slaughter and prolonged female survivorship (or delayed slaughter of females) in herds in the upland areas of northern Iraq and north-western Iran through the analysis of goat remains. Animal production involves the practice of keeping females for breeding and slaughtering males at a younger age for meat. This is in contrast to the remains of hunted populations, which clearly show a focus on fully

The ancestors of the modern goat were potentially two species, *Capra falconeri*, and the Bezoar goat, *Capra aegagrus* [13], being the most cited candidate (*Capra hircus aegagrus* is still found in its wild form in the Zagros mountains of Iran and Iraq). Most of the domesticated animals we know today originated in the Ancient Near

Wool (from sheep) and hair (from goats) were initially plucked (pulled or combed),

but shearing was practised from the middle of the second millennium. Milk was obtained from cows, sheep and goats (camels and water buffalo were also used for this purpose). Yoghurt, cheese, butter and ghee were produced. Butter was made by churning the milk in a narrow-necked jar [7] and rolled with the foot or rocked [9]. Since fresh milk spoiled rapidly, it was often only used in medicines, which would be made fresh and used immediately. **Figure 2** shows a cylinder seal from Mari with a typical agricultural scene. Many such seals have been found, which may indicate the economic

activity in which the owner of the seal may have distinguished him (or her)self.

*Terracotta tablets inscribed with the records of goatherds (left) and cowherds (right), unearthed at Lagash, Mesopotamia, and dated to 2250–2175 B.C.E. (housed in the collection at the Louvre, Paris: [17]).*

East. These include cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, cats, dogs, ducks, chickens, geese, horses, donkeys and mules [8]. Their use for milk, meat, fat, leather, wool, hair, draught, transportation, manure [8], cheese [9], the storage of wealth [11], eggs [9], recreational (and possibly educational) zoos [9], drugs [9] and for religious use (sacrifice, extispicy and for maintenance of the religious complex) is documented. Sheep and goats were kept in large flocks that belonged to the state, the temple or private owners and each was branded with its owner's mark (or that of the god for which it was intended). Clearly articulated contracts between owners and shepherds have been found. Shepherds often kept all the dairy products and some of the wool as compensation for their work. Their compensation could also include a share of the growth in the flock. **Figure 1** shows terracotta tablets inscribed with

adult males with females and young taken only occasionally.

the records of goatherds and cowherds [14].

**6**

**Figure 1.**

*Cylinder seal from Mari (3000–2000 B.C.E.). Top register showing milking scene, bottom register with goats, hero figures and eagle with lion-head.*

### **Figure 3.**

*Stone panel from the central palace of Tiglath-Pileser III. Neo-Assyrian, 730–727 B.C.E. Nimrud (ancient Kalhu), northern Iraq (housed in the British Museum).*

### **Figure 4.**

*Goat skins used as flotation devices. Stone panel from the central palace of Tiglath-Pileser III. Neo-Assyrian, 730–727 B.C.E. Nimrud (ancient Kalhu), northern Iraq (housed in the British Museum).*

Although horses were important in battle, goats were often taken as booty (**Figure 3**) and inflated goat skin bags were used in warfare as flotation devices (**Figure 4**).
