**3.4 Flaxseed oil**

*Microencapsulation - Processes, Technologies and Industrial Applications*

29.3–41.4% oleic, 8.0–10.3% palmitic, and 2.1–4.8% stearic acids in the seed oil [35]. Moreover, sesame oil is also rich in γ-tocopherols (90.5%) [36]. The crude sesame oil contains lignans such as sesamin (293–885 mg/100 g oil), sesamolin (123–459 mg/100 g oil), and sesamol (trace–5.6 mg/100 g oil) [33]. The sesame lignans have been reported to inhibit lipid oxidation and to enhance antioxidant activity of vitamin E in lipid peroxidation systems [37]. All these lignans have multiple physiological functions including inhibiting cholesterol absorption from the intestine, reducing 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl CoA reductase activity in the liver microsomes [38], and inhibiting hepatic endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in high-fat-diet-fed mice [39]. Onsaard et al. [40] applied a multilayer emulsion for sesame oil aiming to investigate the influence of maltodextrin and environmental stresses (pH, NaCl, and sucrose) on the stability of sesame oil-in-water emulsions containing droplets stabilized by WPC-k-carrageenan membranes. The primary emulsion containing whey protein concentrate-coated droplets was prepared by homogenization. The secondary emulsion containing whey protein concentrate-k-carrageenan was produced by mixing of the primary emulsion with an aqueous k-carrageenan in the absence or presence of maltodextrin solution. There were no significant changes in mean droplet diameter and z-potential of droplets at any maltodextrin concentration (0–30%) or a dextrose equivalent (10 and 15) after 24 h storage. The apparent viscosity of emulsions was increased when the maltodextrin concentration increased. The secondary emulsion containing 15% maltodextrin with dextrose equivalent of 10 provided the stability to aggregate at pH 6–8, NaCl 300 mM, and sucrose 0–20% [40]. Onsaard et al. [8] also studied the oxidation stability of encapsulated sesame oil powder by spray drying. Microencapsulated sesame oil powder was prepared from sesame oil-in-water emulsions containing 15% sesame oil, 0.5% whey protein concentrate, 0.2% κ-carrageenan, and 0–30% maltodextrin with a dextrose equivalent (DE) of 10 using spray drying method. They found that the microencapsulated powder provided high encapsulation yields (86.73%) and low moisture content (3.19%) and water activity (aw = 0.28). The powder exhibited a spherical shape with a few cracks on the surface. They reported that no significant difference in TBARS value was observed during storage at ambient temperature, cold storage temperature, and frozen temperature for 30 days storage (p > 0.05). They also suggested that using κ-carrageenan as a secondary layer can improve oxidation stability. They suggested that to the emulsion containing anionic droplets stabilized by interfacial membranes, comprising whey protein concentrate/k-carrageenan/maltodextrin can be used to produce microencapsulation of sesame oil using spray drying technique. Therefore, the powder performed better in protecting the sesame oil against

Sunflower oil contains a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)

mainly linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) including 68–72% of total fatty acid content. Moreover, it is considered to display an excellent hypocholesterolemic action, which can reduce cardiovascular risk [41]. The other important component of sunflower oil is vitamin E (α-tocopherol). Its high level of vitamin E is helpful for antioxidant activity [42]. Sunflower oil has been encapsulated in starch matrices (native potato starch, water, glycerol, and emulsifier) by extrusion. Extrusion processing parameters such as screw speed, the presence of die head, throughput, melt temperature, and especially the screw configuration play an important role in the development of the dispersed phase morphology [43]. Domian et al. [44] studied sunflower oil microencapsulated using a spray drying method in the matrix

**30**

oxidation during storage [8].

**3.3 Sunflower oil**

Flaxseed oil is a great source of ω-3 fatty acids. It contains 73% polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 9% saturated fatty acids, and 18% monosaturated fatty acids [46]. Major fatty acids in flaxseed oil are α-linolenic acid (c18:3; ω-3) (39.90–60.42%), linoleic acid (c18:2; ω-6) (12.25–17.44%), oleic acid (c18:1) (13.44–19.39%), stearic acid (c18:0) (2.24–4.59%), and palmitic acid (c16:0) (4.90–8.00%) [47]. α-Linolenic acid is an essential fatty acid as a precursor of the important long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [48]. Goyal et al. (2014) reported that flaxseed oil, fibers, and flax lignans benefit to the reduction of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, diabetes, cancer, arthritis, osteoporosis, autoimmune, and neurological disorders [49]. Although the flaxseed oil is high in antioxidant activity, it can be oxidized after extraction and purification. Microencapsulation technology was suggested to protect PUFAs oil against oxidation, improving their manipulation, modulating their release, and masking their unpleasant test and odor. Increasing the stability of flaxseed oil by microencapsulation process is based on ionic gelation through vibrating nozzle extrusion technology, using pectin as wall material [48]. The authors applied two different drying methods, passive air drying, and fluidized bed drying. The results show that the fluidized bed drying method provided the 20-fold faster and higher payload. Under accelerated storage, higher stability of the encapsulated flaxseed oil powder was found compared to bulk oil [48]. Rubilar et al. [50] optimized the process condition to improve the microencapsulation efficiency of flaxseed oil using a spray drying technique. The results showed that higher microencapsulation efficiency values were obtained with a high concentration of encapsulating wall (30% wall material concentration, 14% oil concentration, and maltodextrin/gum arabic wall type). The microencapsulation of flaxseed oil can enhance the oxidation stability, which can be applied for soup powder enriched with microencapsulated flaxseed oil as a source of ω-3 [50]. Spray-dried flaxseed oil emulsions were prepared by chickpea or lentil protein isolate and maltodextrin. The oxidation stability of encapsulated flaxseed oil was found over a storage period of 25 days at room temperature, and 84.2% of the encapsulated flaxseed oil within the gastrointestinal environments was delivered [51].

### **3.5 Coconut oil**

Coconut oil is edible oil extracting from a kernel of mature coconut palm (*Cocos nucifera*). The coconut oil is the white or slightly yellowish color at a temperature above 26°C and its strong odor or flavor is due to δ- and γ-lactones [2]. The oil contains triacylglycerols (84.0–93.1%), 1,2-diacylglycerols (1.5–5.1%), 1,3-diacylglycerols (1.2–2.1%), monoglyceride (1.0–7.0%), free fatty acids (1.0– 2.6%), phospholipids (0.03–0.4%), and glycolipids (0.2–0.35%) [52]. Hui et al. [33] have reported that coconut oil contains 90% saturated fatty acids and 10% unsaturated fatty acids. Medium chain triglycerides (MCTs) are the main components of a fatty acid containing lauric acid (40–50%), myristic acid (13–19%), and


**Table 2.** *Application of encapsulated vegetable oils using different drying techniques.*

**33**

*Microencapsulated Vegetable Oil Powder DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85351*

of encapsulated coconut oil [57].

value microcapsules [63].

are summarized in **Table 2**.

**3.6 Rice bran oil**

palmitic acid (4–18%) [33]. Coconut oil, especially virgin coconut oil (VCO), has been claimed as a health benefit product such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, and cytoprotective efficacies due to its higher polyphenolics [53]. It also has been reported that coconut oil exhibited antioxidant property and prevented the peroxidation of lipids both in vitro and in vivo conditions [54]. Moreover, MCTs have been reported as a human health benefit such as weight and glucose control, as well as lipid metabolism and acting as a tumor inhibitor when consumed in a diet [55, 56]. Application of ultrasound for microencapsulation of coconut milk fat using spray drying has been studied by Le et al. [22]. It was reported that using a mixture of coconut milk, gelatin solution, and maltodextrin as a wall material was found successful [22]. On the other hand, VCO microcapsules from oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion using supercritical carbon dioxide spray drying have been reported by Hee et al. [57]. The authors prepared an O/W emulsion by using maltodextrin, sodium caseinate, and soy lecithin as wall materials before supercritical carbon dioxide spray drying was conducted. This result has found a minor effect on antioxidant activity and fatty acids composition

Rice bran oil can be extracted from a hard outer brown layer of rice caryopsis during milling. The compositions of curd rice bran oil are 90–96% saponifiable lipids, 83–96% triacylglycerols (TAG), 3–4% diglyceride, 6–7% monoglyceride, 2–4% free fatty acids, 3–4% waxes, 6–7% glycolipids, 4–5% phospholipids, and 4.2% unsaponifiable lipids. The fatty acid compositions of rice bran oil are 0.3% myristic acid (C14:0), 15.0% palmitic acid (C16:0), 1.7% stearic acid (C18:0), 43.0% oleic acid (C18:1), 37.4% linoleic acid (C18:2; ω-6), and 1.5% linolenic acid (C18:3; ω-3) [33]. Rice bran oil contains vitamin E (α-tocopherol, β-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol, and β-tocotrienol), γ-oryzanol, and phytosterols, which are known as antioxidants [58, 59]. In addition, rice bran oil provides several health benefits such as reducing cholesterol, cardiovascular health benefits, and antitumor activity [60, 61]. Microencapsulation of rice bran oil has been reported using a spray drying technique at 140°C inlet air temperature and a combination of different wall materials (tapioca starch and soy protein isolate). This encapsulated rice bran oil powder provided a high encapsulation efficiency and high γ-oryzanol content with low peroxide value [62]. Moreover, Murali et al. [63] optimized rice bran oil encapsulation condition using jackfruit seed starch and whey protein isolate blend as wall materials by spray drying technique. They found that rice bran oil emulsion made with 20% rice bran oil, 3:1 of jackfruit seed starch and whey protein isolate ratio, and 140°C spray drying inlet temperature provided a high encapsulation efficiency and low peroxide

According to several researches reported and reviewed in this chapter, the application of encapsulated vegetable oil offers several benefits to the food industry

There are several encapsulated vegetable oil powder characteristics used for characterization of encapsulated powder aiming to ensure that encapsulation techniques can be applied to stabilize the vegetable oil powder in physical, chemical,

**4. Characterization of microencapsulated vegetable oil**

and physicochemical properties as concluded in **Table 3**.

*Microencapsulated Vegetable Oil Powder DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85351*

palmitic acid (4–18%) [33]. Coconut oil, especially virgin coconut oil (VCO), has been claimed as a health benefit product such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, lipid-lowering, and cytoprotective efficacies due to its higher polyphenolics [53]. It also has been reported that coconut oil exhibited antioxidant property and prevented the peroxidation of lipids both in vitro and in vivo conditions [54]. Moreover, MCTs have been reported as a human health benefit such as weight and glucose control, as well as lipid metabolism and acting as a tumor inhibitor when consumed in a diet [55, 56]. Application of ultrasound for microencapsulation of coconut milk fat using spray drying has been studied by Le et al. [22]. It was reported that using a mixture of coconut milk, gelatin solution, and maltodextrin as a wall material was found successful [22]. On the other hand, VCO microcapsules from oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion using supercritical carbon dioxide spray drying have been reported by Hee et al. [57]. The authors prepared an O/W emulsion by using maltodextrin, sodium caseinate, and soy lecithin as wall materials before supercritical carbon dioxide spray drying was conducted. This result has found a minor effect on antioxidant activity and fatty acids composition of encapsulated coconut oil [57].

#### **3.6 Rice bran oil**

*Microencapsulation - Processes, Technologies and Industrial Applications*

[44]

**32**

**Encapsulating** 

**Wall material**

**Encapsulation process**

**Encapsulation**

**Oil content**

**Particle size**

**References**

**Efficiency (EE)**

**Encapsulation yield** 

**(EY)**

—

—

30% 2.35% and

~0–15 μm

8.56%

15%

570–650 nm

[8, 40]

0.4 μm

[25]

**ingredient**

Soybean oil

Sesame oil Sunflower oil

Whey protein/lactose

Taurine and glycine

Whey protein concentrate, κ-carrageenan, and

maltodextrin

Native potato starch/glycerol/emulsifier

Trehalose/whey protein isolate or sodium

caseinate (NaCas)

Maltodextrin / hydroxypropylmethylcellulose

Gum arabic and maltodextrin/porous starch

Pectin Maltodextrin/gum arabic

Chickpea protein/lentil protein isolate/

maltodextrin

Gelatin solution and maltodextrin

Maltodextrin/sodium caseinate/soy lecithin

Tapioca starch/soya protein isolate

Jackfruit seed starch/whey protein isolate

Supercritical carbon dioxide

spray drying

Spray drying Spray drying

EE 76.97% EE 85.90%

20%

20%

3.40–300.51 μm

[63]

—

[62]

Spray drying

EE ~82%

14.66%

10.3–6.0 μm

[22]

EY ~90%

EE 73–80%

11.6%

27–72 μm

[57]

Coconut oil Rice bran oil

**Table 2.**

*Application of encapsulated vegetable oils using different drying techniques.*

Flaxseed oil

Spray drying Spray drying

Vibrating nozzle extrusion/

fluid bed

Spray drying Spray drying

EE 88 and 86.3%

20%

16.3–24.0 μm

[51]

21.0–26.1 μm

EE 54.6–90.7%

14 and 20%

17.6 and

[50]

23.1 μm

EE 73.13–87.00%

—

EE 98%

—

20%

15%

862–1463 μm

[48]

—

[45]

—

[9]

Extrusion

Spray drying

—

EE 96–99%

4 μl 22%

10–70 μm

15.3–53.4 μm

[43]

Spray drying

Nozzleless electrostatic

atomization

Spray drying

EY 86.73%

> Rice bran oil can be extracted from a hard outer brown layer of rice caryopsis during milling. The compositions of curd rice bran oil are 90–96% saponifiable lipids, 83–96% triacylglycerols (TAG), 3–4% diglyceride, 6–7% monoglyceride, 2–4% free fatty acids, 3–4% waxes, 6–7% glycolipids, 4–5% phospholipids, and 4.2% unsaponifiable lipids. The fatty acid compositions of rice bran oil are 0.3% myristic acid (C14:0), 15.0% palmitic acid (C16:0), 1.7% stearic acid (C18:0), 43.0% oleic acid (C18:1), 37.4% linoleic acid (C18:2; ω-6), and 1.5% linolenic acid (C18:3; ω-3) [33]. Rice bran oil contains vitamin E (α-tocopherol, β-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol, and β-tocotrienol), γ-oryzanol, and phytosterols, which are known as antioxidants [58, 59]. In addition, rice bran oil provides several health benefits such as reducing cholesterol, cardiovascular health benefits, and antitumor activity [60, 61]. Microencapsulation of rice bran oil has been reported using a spray drying technique at 140°C inlet air temperature and a combination of different wall materials (tapioca starch and soy protein isolate). This encapsulated rice bran oil powder provided a high encapsulation efficiency and high γ-oryzanol content with low peroxide value [62]. Moreover, Murali et al. [63] optimized rice bran oil encapsulation condition using jackfruit seed starch and whey protein isolate blend as wall materials by spray drying technique. They found that rice bran oil emulsion made with 20% rice bran oil, 3:1 of jackfruit seed starch and whey protein isolate ratio, and 140°C spray drying inlet temperature provided a high encapsulation efficiency and low peroxide value microcapsules [63].

> According to several researches reported and reviewed in this chapter, the application of encapsulated vegetable oil offers several benefits to the food industry are summarized in **Table 2**.

### **4. Characterization of microencapsulated vegetable oil**

There are several encapsulated vegetable oil powder characteristics used for characterization of encapsulated powder aiming to ensure that encapsulation techniques can be applied to stabilize the vegetable oil powder in physical, chemical, and physicochemical properties as concluded in **Table 3**.


#### **Table 3.**

*Different characterization of microencapsulated vegetable oils.*
