**3. Vegetable oil-in-water emulsion preparation using microencapsulation technique**

Vegetable oils such as soybean, sesame, sunflower, flaxseed, coconut, rice, etc. have been found as major sources of edible oil, which takes place for almost 70% of edible oil. They are composed primarily of triglycerides, esters of one molecule of glycerol, and three molecules of fatty acids. Triglycerides are the most abundant component found in lipid (more than 90%). On the other hand, a vague variation of free fatty acid was reported (0.3–9.5%) depending on a plant source [33]. Different fatty acids were classified by the nature of the hydrocarbon chain. This chain length can vary from 4 to 24 carbon atoms and can be classified as saturated (without a double bond, SFA), monounsaturated (one double bond, MUFA), or polyunsaturated (two or more double bonds, PUFA), which contains 18 carbons with different saturation degree. The position of fatty acids on the glycerol molecule

**29**

**3.2 Sesame oil**

*Microencapsulated Vegetable Oil Powder DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85351*

high contents of fatty acids (FAs) [31].

**3.1 Soybean oil**

can be in the 1, 3, or 2 positions depending on saturation. Glycerides with saturated fatty acid in this position usually have a high melting point and poor solubility,

Generally, fatty acid composition of vegetable oils is formed by a mixture of saturated (SFAs) and unsaturated (UNFAs) fatty acids classified by a number of unsaturated bonds as monounsaturated (MUFAs) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Nevertheless, each of the analyzed vegetable oils has specific fatty acid distribution depending on their plant sources. Thus, their impact on human health could be assessed according to individual fatty acids because of their different influences on human health and risks of serious diseases [31]. Recently, nutritionists have recommended vegetable oils as an important part of a healthy diet due to their

Soybean oil is the important seed oil produced in the world due to its high quality and low-cost production. Soybean oil has 15% of saturated fatty acid and 80.7% of unsaturated fatty acid (50.8% linoleic acid content and 6.8% linolenic acid). Soybean oil contains a saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats in healthy proportions (SFA:MUFA:PUFA = 16:24:58). Linoleic acid (omega-6) is the major polyunsaturated fatty acid found in oil; phytosterols, especially B-sitosterol, inhibit cholesterol absorption and reduce blood LDL cholesterol levels by 10–15%. Moreover, it contains several bioactive compounds such as antioxidant vitamin E, a powerful lipid soluble vitamin, which is important to maintain the integrity of cell membranes and protect them from harmful reactive oxygen-free radicals; vitamin K, an essential element in promoting bone formation and strengthening, and neuronal protection in the brain [32]. Soybean oil provides several advantages and disadvantages compared to other vegetable oils. The advantages of soybean oil include (1) a high content of unsaturated fatty acid, (2) wide temperature range of liquid state, (3) hydrogenated selectively for blending with semisolid and liquid oil, (4) source of nutrients (such as flavonoids and isoflavonoids, phenolic acids, phytoalexins, phytosterols, proteins, and peptides) and mineral (such as copper, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potassium, B vitamin, and omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid) [32, 33]. The disadvantages of soybean oil display a large number of phosphatides, which have to be removed by processing technique and high levels of linolenic acid, which is responsible for its flavor and odor reversion [33]. Several encapsulation techniques for soybean oil have been studied [3, 34]. Spray-dried soybean oil emulsions were made of whey protein, lactose, and soybean oil. It is reported that the ability of whey protein used for soybean oil encapsulation is moderate and the soybean was found in low quality when compared to sodium caseinate under dry and humid atmosphere storage condition (RH 75% for 4 days). Moreover, the fat releasing was observed on powder surface due to some critical amount of lactose containing in powder comparing the powder containing a small amount of lactose [21]. Moreover, the application of electrostatic atomization for soybean oil encapsulation has been reported [25]. W/O emulsion containing glycine and taurine as the wall materials was prepared. The result was shown that the oxida-

tive stability of soybean oil during high-temperature storage was improved.

Sesame oil contains 80% unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic and linoleic acids are the main fatty acids. It contains less than 20% of a saturated fatty acid including palmitic acid and stearic acid. The fatty acid composition is 40.7–49.3% of linoleic,

which can cause nutritional problems and poor digestibility [33].

#### *Microencapsulated Vegetable Oil Powder DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85351*

can be in the 1, 3, or 2 positions depending on saturation. Glycerides with saturated fatty acid in this position usually have a high melting point and poor solubility, which can cause nutritional problems and poor digestibility [33].

Generally, fatty acid composition of vegetable oils is formed by a mixture of saturated (SFAs) and unsaturated (UNFAs) fatty acids classified by a number of unsaturated bonds as monounsaturated (MUFAs) or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Nevertheless, each of the analyzed vegetable oils has specific fatty acid distribution depending on their plant sources. Thus, their impact on human health could be assessed according to individual fatty acids because of their different influences on human health and risks of serious diseases [31]. Recently, nutritionists have recommended vegetable oils as an important part of a healthy diet due to their high contents of fatty acids (FAs) [31].

### **3.1 Soybean oil**

*Microencapsulation - Processes, Technologies and Industrial Applications*

has been used to produce the encapsulation of vegetable oil in the food industry [8, 9, 21–24]. The spray drying process conditions (inlet and outlet temperature, nozzle size, feed rate, etc.) have been found to affect the characteristics and properties of encapsulations. However, the optimum drying condition should obtain minimized fat-free surface powder. It was reported that low inlet and outlet temperatures can reduce the viscosity and the diffusivity of fat. Moreover, large emulsion droplet and nozzle size provide a large powder with low surface area and low fat-free surface [25–28]. The advantages of spray drying compose of simple process, fast and easy to scale up, availability of machinery, low production cost, varied particle sizes, and excellent dispersibility in media. However, some limitations of spray drying were stated such as loss of core material during processing and oxidation of flavoring compounds [29, 30]. In addition, not only spray drying technique was selected to apply for encapsulation process, but different drying techniques are also available for vegetable oil encapsulation such as freeze drying, fluidized bed spray drying, nozzleless electrostatic atomization spray drying, and supercritical carbon dioxide spray drying [25, 26, 31, 32].

Vegetable oils such as soybean, sesame, sunflower, flaxseed, coconut, rice, etc. have been found as major sources of edible oil, which takes place for almost 70% of edible oil. They are composed primarily of triglycerides, esters of one molecule of glycerol, and three molecules of fatty acids. Triglycerides are the most abundant component found in lipid (more than 90%). On the other hand, a vague variation of free fatty acid was reported (0.3–9.5%) depending on a plant source [33]. Different fatty acids were classified by the nature of the hydrocarbon chain. This chain length can vary from 4 to 24 carbon atoms and can be classified as saturated (without a double bond, SFA), monounsaturated (one double bond, MUFA), or polyunsaturated (two or more double bonds, PUFA), which contains 18 carbons with different saturation degree. The position of fatty acids on the glycerol molecule

**3. Vegetable oil-in-water emulsion preparation using** 

**microencapsulation technique**

**28**

**Figure 5.**

*Schematic representation of spray dryer.*

Soybean oil is the important seed oil produced in the world due to its high quality and low-cost production. Soybean oil has 15% of saturated fatty acid and 80.7% of unsaturated fatty acid (50.8% linoleic acid content and 6.8% linolenic acid). Soybean oil contains a saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats in healthy proportions (SFA:MUFA:PUFA = 16:24:58). Linoleic acid (omega-6) is the major polyunsaturated fatty acid found in oil; phytosterols, especially B-sitosterol, inhibit cholesterol absorption and reduce blood LDL cholesterol levels by 10–15%. Moreover, it contains several bioactive compounds such as antioxidant vitamin E, a powerful lipid soluble vitamin, which is important to maintain the integrity of cell membranes and protect them from harmful reactive oxygen-free radicals; vitamin K, an essential element in promoting bone formation and strengthening, and neuronal protection in the brain [32]. Soybean oil provides several advantages and disadvantages compared to other vegetable oils. The advantages of soybean oil include (1) a high content of unsaturated fatty acid, (2) wide temperature range of liquid state, (3) hydrogenated selectively for blending with semisolid and liquid oil, (4) source of nutrients (such as flavonoids and isoflavonoids, phenolic acids, phytoalexins, phytosterols, proteins, and peptides) and mineral (such as copper, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potassium, B vitamin, and omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid) [32, 33]. The disadvantages of soybean oil display a large number of phosphatides, which have to be removed by processing technique and high levels of linolenic acid, which is responsible for its flavor and odor reversion [33]. Several encapsulation techniques for soybean oil have been studied [3, 34]. Spray-dried soybean oil emulsions were made of whey protein, lactose, and soybean oil. It is reported that the ability of whey protein used for soybean oil encapsulation is moderate and the soybean was found in low quality when compared to sodium caseinate under dry and humid atmosphere storage condition (RH 75% for 4 days). Moreover, the fat releasing was observed on powder surface due to some critical amount of lactose containing in powder comparing the powder containing a small amount of lactose [21]. Moreover, the application of electrostatic atomization for soybean oil encapsulation has been reported [25]. W/O emulsion containing glycine and taurine as the wall materials was prepared. The result was shown that the oxidative stability of soybean oil during high-temperature storage was improved.

#### **3.2 Sesame oil**

Sesame oil contains 80% unsaturated fatty acids. Oleic and linoleic acids are the main fatty acids. It contains less than 20% of a saturated fatty acid including palmitic acid and stearic acid. The fatty acid composition is 40.7–49.3% of linoleic, 29.3–41.4% oleic, 8.0–10.3% palmitic, and 2.1–4.8% stearic acids in the seed oil [35]. Moreover, sesame oil is also rich in γ-tocopherols (90.5%) [36]. The crude sesame oil contains lignans such as sesamin (293–885 mg/100 g oil), sesamolin (123–459 mg/100 g oil), and sesamol (trace–5.6 mg/100 g oil) [33]. The sesame lignans have been reported to inhibit lipid oxidation and to enhance antioxidant activity of vitamin E in lipid peroxidation systems [37]. All these lignans have multiple physiological functions including inhibiting cholesterol absorption from the intestine, reducing 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl CoA reductase activity in the liver microsomes [38], and inhibiting hepatic endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in high-fat-diet-fed mice [39]. Onsaard et al. [40] applied a multilayer emulsion for sesame oil aiming to investigate the influence of maltodextrin and environmental stresses (pH, NaCl, and sucrose) on the stability of sesame oil-in-water emulsions containing droplets stabilized by WPC-k-carrageenan membranes. The primary emulsion containing whey protein concentrate-coated droplets was prepared by homogenization. The secondary emulsion containing whey protein concentrate-k-carrageenan was produced by mixing of the primary emulsion with an aqueous k-carrageenan in the absence or presence of maltodextrin solution. There were no significant changes in mean droplet diameter and z-potential of droplets at any maltodextrin concentration (0–30%) or a dextrose equivalent (10 and 15) after 24 h storage. The apparent viscosity of emulsions was increased when the maltodextrin concentration increased. The secondary emulsion containing 15% maltodextrin with dextrose equivalent of 10 provided the stability to aggregate at pH 6–8, NaCl 300 mM, and sucrose 0–20% [40]. Onsaard et al. [8] also studied the oxidation stability of encapsulated sesame oil powder by spray drying. Microencapsulated sesame oil powder was prepared from sesame oil-in-water emulsions containing 15% sesame oil, 0.5% whey protein concentrate, 0.2% κ-carrageenan, and 0–30% maltodextrin with a dextrose equivalent (DE) of 10 using spray drying method. They found that the microencapsulated powder provided high encapsulation yields (86.73%) and low moisture content (3.19%) and water activity (aw = 0.28). The powder exhibited a spherical shape with a few cracks on the surface. They reported that no significant difference in TBARS value was observed during storage at ambient temperature, cold storage temperature, and frozen temperature for 30 days storage (p > 0.05). They also suggested that using κ-carrageenan as a secondary layer can improve oxidation stability. They suggested that to the emulsion containing anionic droplets stabilized by interfacial membranes, comprising whey protein concentrate/k-carrageenan/maltodextrin can be used to produce microencapsulation of sesame oil using spray drying technique. Therefore, the powder performed better in protecting the sesame oil against oxidation during storage [8].

#### **3.3 Sunflower oil**

Sunflower oil contains a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) mainly linoleic acid (18:2 n-6) including 68–72% of total fatty acid content. Moreover, it is considered to display an excellent hypocholesterolemic action, which can reduce cardiovascular risk [41]. The other important component of sunflower oil is vitamin E (α-tocopherol). Its high level of vitamin E is helpful for antioxidant activity [42]. Sunflower oil has been encapsulated in starch matrices (native potato starch, water, glycerol, and emulsifier) by extrusion. Extrusion processing parameters such as screw speed, the presence of die head, throughput, melt temperature, and especially the screw configuration play an important role in the development of the dispersed phase morphology [43]. Domian et al. [44] studied sunflower oil microencapsulated using a spray drying method in the matrix

**31**

environments was delivered [51].

**3.5 Coconut oil**

*Microencapsulated Vegetable Oil Powder DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.85351*

**3.4 Flaxseed oil**

tive to spray drying for flavor encapsulation [45].

of trehalose and whey protein isolate or sodium caseinate. The microencapsulated powder was able to prevent oil oxidation after observing agglomeration during 3 months storage [44]. Belingheri et al. [45] reported that high-oleic sunflower oil carried on porous starch as an alternative to spray drying does not undergo significantly higher oxidation than traditionally spray-dried sunflower oil. They have suggested that plating on porous starch could be a suitable technological alterna-

Flaxseed oil is a great source of ω-3 fatty acids. It contains 73% polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), 9% saturated fatty acids, and 18% monosaturated fatty acids [46]. Major fatty acids in flaxseed oil are α-linolenic acid (c18:3; ω-3) (39.90–60.42%), linoleic acid (c18:2; ω-6) (12.25–17.44%), oleic acid (c18:1) (13.44–19.39%), stearic acid (c18:0) (2.24–4.59%), and palmitic acid (c16:0) (4.90–8.00%) [47].

α-Linolenic acid is an essential fatty acid as a precursor of the important long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [48]. Goyal et al. (2014) reported that flaxseed oil, fibers, and flax lignans benefit to the reduction of cardiovascular disease, atherosclerosis, diabetes, cancer, arthritis, osteoporosis, autoimmune, and neurological disorders [49]. Although the flaxseed oil is high in antioxidant activity, it can be oxidized after extraction and purification. Microencapsulation technology was suggested to protect PUFAs oil against oxidation, improving their manipulation, modulating their release, and masking their unpleasant test and odor. Increasing the stability of flaxseed oil by microencapsulation process is based on ionic gelation through vibrating nozzle extrusion technology, using pectin as wall material [48]. The authors applied two different drying methods, passive air drying, and fluidized bed drying. The results show that the fluidized bed drying method provided the 20-fold faster and higher payload. Under accelerated storage, higher stability of the encapsulated flaxseed oil powder was found compared to bulk oil [48]. Rubilar et al. [50] optimized the process condition to improve the microencapsulation efficiency of flaxseed oil using a spray drying technique. The results showed that higher microencapsulation efficiency values were obtained with a high concentration of encapsulating wall (30% wall material concentration, 14% oil concentration, and maltodextrin/gum arabic wall type). The microencapsulation of flaxseed oil can enhance the oxidation stability, which can be applied for soup powder enriched with microencapsulated flaxseed oil as a source of ω-3 [50]. Spray-dried flaxseed oil emulsions were prepared by chickpea or lentil protein isolate and maltodextrin. The oxidation stability of encapsulated flaxseed oil was found over a storage period of 25 days at room temperature, and 84.2% of the encapsulated flaxseed oil within the gastrointestinal

Coconut oil is edible oil extracting from a kernel of mature coconut palm (*Cocos nucifera*). The coconut oil is the white or slightly yellowish color at a temperature above 26°C and its strong odor or flavor is due to δ- and γ-lactones [2]. The oil contains triacylglycerols (84.0–93.1%), 1,2-diacylglycerols (1.5–5.1%), 1,3-diacylglycerols (1.2–2.1%), monoglyceride (1.0–7.0%), free fatty acids (1.0– 2.6%), phospholipids (0.03–0.4%), and glycolipids (0.2–0.35%) [52]. Hui et al. [33] have reported that coconut oil contains 90% saturated fatty acids and 10% unsaturated fatty acids. Medium chain triglycerides (MCTs) are the main components of a fatty acid containing lauric acid (40–50%), myristic acid (13–19%), and of trehalose and whey protein isolate or sodium caseinate. The microencapsulated powder was able to prevent oil oxidation after observing agglomeration during 3 months storage [44]. Belingheri et al. [45] reported that high-oleic sunflower oil carried on porous starch as an alternative to spray drying does not undergo significantly higher oxidation than traditionally spray-dried sunflower oil. They have suggested that plating on porous starch could be a suitable technological alternative to spray drying for flavor encapsulation [45].
