**5. Vector significance**

Lice may serve as biological or mechanical vectors for various infectious agents. *Haematopinus tuberculatus* is known to be a vector for the species *Trypanosoma evansi* and *Anaplasma marginale*. *H. tuberculatus* invasion might play a role as a vector in the intensive spreading of mycoplasma infection among buffaloes. The results of the study of Egri et al. draw attention to the importance of preventing the spread of **mycoplasma** infection and implementing control programs against parasitoses of animals [18]. The occurrence of cattle-associated Bartonella species was investigated in the cattle tail louse *Haematopinus quadripertusus* and in dairy cattle blood in the study of Gutiérrez et al. from Israel [23]. The lice were identified morphologically and molecularly using 18S rRNA sequencing. Thereafter, they were screened for Bartonella DNA by conventional and real-time PCR assays using four partial genetic loci (gltA, rpoB, ssrA, and internal transcribed spacer [ITS]). A potentially novel Bartonella variant, closely related to other ruminant bartonellae, was identified in 11 of 13 louse pools collected in summer. In the cattle blood, the prevalence of Bartonella infection was 38%, identified as *B. bovis* and *B. henselae* (24 and 12%, respectively). A third genotype, closely related to *Bartonella melophagi* and *Bartonella chomelii* (based on the ssrA gene) and to *B. bovis* (based on the ITS sequence) was identified in a single cow. The relatively high prevalence of these Bartonella species in cattle and the occurrence of phylogenetically diverse Bartonella variants in both cattle and their lice suggest the potential role of this animal system in the generation of Bartonella species diversity. To investigate louse infestation of ruminants and pathogens potentially transmitted by them, anopluran lice (n = 1182) were collected in Hungary and evaluated for the presence of anaplasma, rickettsia and hemotropic mycoplasma DNA in the study of Hornok et al. [24]. On cattle, the following species were found: *Linognathus vituli* (57%), *Haematopinus eurysternus* (38%) and *Solenopotes capillatus* (5%). *L. vituli* had a lower mean individual count/ host when compared to *H. eurysternus*. On calves, only *L. vituli* was observed, with a higher louse burden than on full-grown cattle*. H. eurysternus* and *S. capillatus* were more likely to occur simultaneously with another species on the same host, than *L. vituli*.

## **6. Diagnosis and monitoring**

Sampling involves carefully inspecting sections of skin on a representative sample of animals in the herd, either 10% or 15 animals in each group: mature cows, heifers, and calves. The best regions to inspect are head, neck, shoulders, back, hips, and tail. If sampling indicates that *B. bovis* is the dominant species present, assessment of the neck and tailhead alone is sufficient to detect most infestations. If sampling indicates that *Haematopinus tuberculatus* is the dominant species present in the herds, hair samples were taken only from animals which the hair was covered with louse eggs that were easily visible with the naked eye. These hair samples were consistently collected from a 2 cm2 area on the side of the middle part of the neck.

Although lice normally do not survive away from the host, it is possible to send live specimens by post if a suitably insulated container is used (warmed to 25°C beforehand if possible) and containing a generous quantity of suitable animal hair. Some biting lice can be maintained for at least 8 weeks and a new generation obtained *in vitro* if they are kept on filter papers in Petri dishes at 36–37°C. It is essential to maintain the humidity at 68% RH by the use of an appropriate solution of NaOH, sulfuric acid, or concentrated solution of NH4 NO<sup>3</sup> . For short-term tests, a solution of NaCl may be used, giving approximately 75% RH as a food supply, dried yeasts with powered hair and fresh skin scrapings is supplied; it is important that these should be fresh (no more than 6 days old unless deep frozen) and from the correct host species. This maintenance technique makes it possible to test the insecticide susceptibility of strains from the field [18, 25–27].
