1. Introduction

Antimicrobial compounds include antibiotics as well as many other substances which are used to kill or inhibit the growth (multiplication) of bacteria. But nowadays, many bacteria causing diseases of pandemic (e.g., tuberculosis) importance are increasingly developing the resistance against a myriad of the antimicrobial compounds which, in terms, is leading to the ineffective treatment of many fatal human and animal disease outbreaks.

The emergence of the antibiotic-resistant strains has been associated with an increased occurrence of the morbidity and mortality by the antibiotic-resistant isolates than caused by the nonresistant isolates in both humans and animals. In the last 6 decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the number of the multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates in bacterial community, which have been associated with an increase in hospital stay in humans. Nowadays, with an advent of a variety of molecular biology techniques, there have been several mechanisms reported for the development of the resistance in the bacterial populations infecting humans and animals, and this process is ever increasing. Therefore, it is extremely important to know the factors that cause antibiotic resistance in humans and animals, molecular mechanisms of the antimicrobial resistance in different microbes, different methods of the genetic transfer of the resistance among different microbes, and the development of a variety of strategies for the control of bacterial resistance against antimicrobials, so that a better control

Emergence of Antimicrobial Resistance, Causes, Molecular Mechanisms, and Prevention Strategies…

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79757

47

Currently, in Indo-Pak numerous infectious diseases are prevalent in bovines. Because these are the major source of income for the poor farmers (who merely raise about 4–5 animals), there is massive irregular use of a variety of anti-infectious agents to save their life and thus family earnings. Whereas, in Table 1, a list of diseases and their possible treatments in bovines

Infection/disease Etiology Treatment options Hemorrhagic septicemia Pasteurella multocida Oxytetracycline Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Penicillin Black leg/quarter Clostridium chauvoei Penicillin Contagious bovine Pleuropneumonia Mycoplasma mycoides Tylosin

3. Factors associated with antimicrobial resistance in animals

of antibiotics in animals either by injection or through feed/water.

Table 1. Common bovine infections and their treatment.

Since the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin, by Alexander Fleming, there has been a tremendous use of antibiotics in farm animals. In animals, antibiotics have been used as growth promoters as prophylaxis as well as metaphylaxis. Both approaches involve the administration

The primary goal of antibiotics was to treat the infectious diseases in animals and, thereby, improve the overall health of animals and humans. However, an unexpected thing observed in chickens during the 1940s was that antibiotic use may also cause an increase in the growth rate

of the infections in humans as well as in animals can be made.

2. Common bovine infections and their treatment

is given.

#### 1.1. Antimicrobial resistance in microbes

The idea of using antimicrobial compounds was originally proposed by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 who proposed to use some chemicals which he originally thought as "magic bullet" to kill the bacteria specifically with a minimum harm to the host (animals and humans). He used SilverSan to treat an infectious disease in humans transmitted through sexual contact known as syphilis. This was the first time that a chemical was used to treat the microbial infections. Since the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin (1920s), researcher worked diligently to find new antibiotics, and this leads to the discovery of many new antibiotics, e.g., tetracycline, gentamicin, and chloramphenicol. Antibiotics are compounds which are produced by one microbe, and they are used to kill the other microbial spp. So, till 1950 a majority of infectious diseases in humans were treatable by using these antibiotics [1].

However, unfortunately, soon after the clinical use of antibiotics, a phenomenon was found in Staphylococcus aureus by means of which it was no longer susceptible to penicillin. It started producing an enzyme named as penicillinase, which can easily break down the beta lactam ring of penicillin. This ring is necessary to bind bacteria (penicillin binding proteins; PBPs) and therefore its bacterial killing ability. This effect was named as antimicrobial/antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Since then, many different types of bacteria are becoming increasingly resistant to many new antibiotics. The phenomenon of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a persistently ongoing process and is on rise with every new day. This process can further be increased by humans, e.g., the inappropriate use of antibiotics, following reduced doses of antibiotics than required/standards, using antibiotics as a precautionary measures in viral infections, using antibiotics as growth promoters, prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics, using antibiotics without using the antimicrobial sensitivity testing, and finally by noncompliance of the animal owner. There has been a surge in the use of antibiotics for treatment of a variety of infections. In fact, nowadays, the use of a variety of anti-infection therapy has become an invaluable tool for the treatment of a variety of bovine infections. Using anti-infective agents has greatly reduced the mortality as well as the morbidity against a variety of microbial infections in animals and humans. However, their frequent use has also led to a major problem in human and animal health, the development of antimicrobial resistance in microbes (ability of a microorganism to tolerate and even grow in the presence of the normal inhibitory concentration), and its transmission to a variety of other microbes (within same or different genera) against these anti-infective agents. The development of the resistance in microbes against anti-infective agents was predictable as the discoverer of the first antibiotic, Dr. Alexander Fleming, discussed this issue in his Nobel prize winning lecture (1945) [2, 3].

The emergence of the antibiotic-resistant strains has been associated with an increased occurrence of the morbidity and mortality by the antibiotic-resistant isolates than caused by the nonresistant isolates in both humans and animals. In the last 6 decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the number of the multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates in bacterial community, which have been associated with an increase in hospital stay in humans. Nowadays, with an advent of a variety of molecular biology techniques, there have been several mechanisms reported for the development of the resistance in the bacterial populations infecting humans and animals, and this process is ever increasing. Therefore, it is extremely important to know the factors that cause antibiotic resistance in humans and animals, molecular mechanisms of the antimicrobial resistance in different microbes, different methods of the genetic transfer of the resistance among different microbes, and the development of a variety of strategies for the control of bacterial resistance against antimicrobials, so that a better control of the infections in humans as well as in animals can be made.

## 2. Common bovine infections and their treatment

1. Introduction

Antimicrobial compounds include antibiotics as well as many other substances which are used to kill or inhibit the growth (multiplication) of bacteria. But nowadays, many bacteria causing diseases of pandemic (e.g., tuberculosis) importance are increasingly developing the resistance against a myriad of the antimicrobial compounds which, in terms, is leading to the ineffective

The idea of using antimicrobial compounds was originally proposed by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 who proposed to use some chemicals which he originally thought as "magic bullet" to kill the bacteria specifically with a minimum harm to the host (animals and humans). He used SilverSan to treat an infectious disease in humans transmitted through sexual contact known as syphilis. This was the first time that a chemical was used to treat the microbial infections. Since the discovery of the first antibiotic, penicillin (1920s), researcher worked diligently to find new antibiotics, and this leads to the discovery of many new antibiotics, e.g., tetracycline, gentamicin, and chloramphenicol. Antibiotics are compounds which are produced by one microbe, and they are used to kill the other microbial spp. So, till 1950 a majority of infectious

However, unfortunately, soon after the clinical use of antibiotics, a phenomenon was found in Staphylococcus aureus by means of which it was no longer susceptible to penicillin. It started producing an enzyme named as penicillinase, which can easily break down the beta lactam ring of penicillin. This ring is necessary to bind bacteria (penicillin binding proteins; PBPs) and therefore its bacterial killing ability. This effect was named as antimicrobial/antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Since then, many different types of bacteria are becoming increasingly resistant to many new antibiotics. The phenomenon of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a persistently ongoing process and is on rise with every new day. This process can further be increased by humans, e.g., the inappropriate use of antibiotics, following reduced doses of antibiotics than required/standards, using antibiotics as a precautionary measures in viral infections, using antibiotics as growth promoters, prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics, using antibiotics without using the antimicrobial sensitivity testing, and finally by noncompliance of the animal owner. There has been a surge in the use of antibiotics for treatment of a variety of infections. In fact, nowadays, the use of a variety of anti-infection therapy has become an invaluable tool for the treatment of a variety of bovine infections. Using anti-infective agents has greatly reduced the mortality as well as the morbidity against a variety of microbial infections in animals and humans. However, their frequent use has also led to a major problem in human and animal health, the development of antimicrobial resistance in microbes (ability of a microorganism to tolerate and even grow in the presence of the normal inhibitory concentration), and its transmission to a variety of other microbes (within same or different genera) against these anti-infective agents. The development of the resistance in microbes against anti-infective agents was predictable as the discoverer of the first antibiotic, Dr. Alexander Fleming, discussed this issue in his

treatment of many fatal human and animal disease outbreaks.

diseases in humans were treatable by using these antibiotics [1].

1.1. Antimicrobial resistance in microbes

46 Bovine Science - A Key to Sustainable Development

Nobel prize winning lecture (1945) [2, 3].

Currently, in Indo-Pak numerous infectious diseases are prevalent in bovines. Because these are the major source of income for the poor farmers (who merely raise about 4–5 animals), there is massive irregular use of a variety of anti-infectious agents to save their life and thus family earnings. Whereas, in Table 1, a list of diseases and their possible treatments in bovines is given.


Table 1. Common bovine infections and their treatment.
