**2.1 Sample collection**

contaminated through the ingestion of nutrient from the soil [1, 2]. Grains are subjected to contamination mostly during storage or fallout may occur during the growing season as in the case of Fukushima Daiichi nuclear fallout. These liberated radionuclides may be transported into the grains and grasses through the plant growth process and find their way into the food chain when grazed by a cow [3]. Pollution of dairy products like milk is largely due to animal grazing and consumption of contaminated grass and drinking waters. Thus grass is essentially a direct source or pathway of radionuclides to animals and to man through meat and milk consumption. If dairy milk starts testing positive for high level of radioactive elements, this is indicative of radioactive contamination of the total food supply [4]. Milk samples that contain high levels of radioactivity when ingested by man could accumulate in certain parts of the body, for example, uranium-238 and radium-226 accumulates in human kidney and lungs, and thorium-232 accumulates in human liver, skeleton, tissue, and lungs, while potassium-40 accumulates in the muscles [5]. The accumulation of these radionuclides in any vital organs of the human body will affect the health condition that may cause various forms of diseases and weakening of the immune system and contribute to the increase in mortality rate [6].

*Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture*

Since the end of Second World War in 1948, research works on radionuclide contamination of food in the environment, and its transfer mechanism and pathway to animals and human population have been reported with vigor (ICPR, 1993 & 2000, [2, 7–11]); milk has been one of the staple foodstuff products that was featured prominently in the food items studied [9]. This may be due to its vital position in a family's daily food consumption plan, thus a reliable indicator of natural radionuclides to man for its high consumption rate globally. It is one of the essential food for human nutrition and contains most of the macronutrients, namely, protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins (A, B, and D groups), and trace elements such as calcium, phosphate, magnesium, zinc, and selenium [7, 12]. Milk is a rudimentary foodstuff for the infants compared to adults, on apparent body weight basis. Thus, milk consumed in Nigeria need to be assessed for radiological risk level for proper economic benefit analysis. It is therefore pertinent to set a radionuclide regulatory framework necessary in establishing guidelines relating to radiation protection in milk as a staple foodstuff. To the best of our knowledge, comprehensive data base on levels of radionuclides in staple foodstuffs and standard radionuclide regulatory framework for food imported and consumed in

the country are inadequate, these lay credence to this research work.

This research work was designed to examine the level of natural radionuclides present in liquid and powdered milk products consumed in Nigeria with a view to establishing their specific activities and compare same with values reported in other parts of the world. Assessment of the annual internal dose from the intake of the milk product will be determined, while the doses to the different sensitive human organs were estimated to establish their radiological risk to man. The result would be a contribution to the creation of a standard catalogue of natural radioactivity in foodstuff (milk) in Nigeria. This can serve as a baseline data for possible evaluation of future change in activity levels of these milk products due to environmental factors, ingredient composition, etc. The result obtained in this study will also be useful to the country food and drug regulatory body which has the obligation to

**1.1 Statement of the problem**

**1.2 Aim and objectives of the study**

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To collect milk samples that represent a fair proportion of milk products consumed in Nigeria, a survey was carried out, which involves visiting homes, major supermarkets, fast food outlets, hotels, and major milk distributors throughout the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. The survey revealed that the acceptability of brands of the milk (powdered or liquid) is dictated by its availability, cost, and social class of consumers. The availability of specific products in a region is closely related to the proximity to the manufacturer or key distributor and the awareness due to advertisement of the products in the area. This in situ assessment has shown that 10 leading powdered milk and 11 liquid milk brands were consumed by a large sector of the populace in the six geopolitical zones of the country in the following order: Peak > Cowbell > Coast > Loya > Nunu > Miksi > Dano > real milk for powdered milks and peak > Three Crown > Coast > Hollandia > Olympic > Nunu > Nutri milk > vital milk > Lady liberty > Bridel in liquid milks, of these Dano milk (Demark), Bridel milk (France), and Lady liberty (USA) are imported milk brands. These 10 powdered milk brands and 11 liquid milk brands were then sourced from various shopping malls and local markets. Two hundred (200) grams of the powdered milk collected was put in a cylindrical polystyrene container and sealed with tapes to prevent radon permeability, while for liquid milk, 200 cl of the homogenous samples was filled into a Marinelli beaker which was hitherto washed, rinsed with diluted H2SO4 acid to prevent the samples from being contaminated, and sealed and weighed as samples for gamma spectroscopy analysis.
