*6.3.4 Pollination, fruit, and bunch thinning*

For good quality date fruits, pollen grain should be obtained from certified bodies to be sure that they are free of pests and diseases such as the inflorescence beetle *Macrocoma* sp. and the fungal pathogen *Mauginiella scaettae* and *Thielaviopsis paradoxa*, which cause Khamedj inflorescence rot and black scorch diseases,

**149**

should be eradicated.

*Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84483*

pollination methods.

*amydraula* infestation.

*6.3.5 Fruit bunch bagging, harvesting, and sorting*

*6.3.6 Phytosanitation in date palm groves*

respectively [36]. In this respect, the author stated that extracting pollen and mixing with talc/flour or with water for mechanical pollination proved to be cost-effective and more efficient in prevention of inflorescence pests and disease than traditional

Fruit thinning has two types: strand thinning either made by cutting the end of the strands or removal 30% of the strands from the center of the spathes [35]. It is carried out in February–March 2–3 days after female spathes opening and before pollination. Bunch thinning, on the other hand, involves the removal of the whole bunch and is usually done after pollination. It is carried out in a way that 6–8 bunches are left in each mature date palm. The number of bunches per palm should corresponds to the number of green functioning fronds, i.e., 9–12 green fronds per bunch to ensure high yield of date fruits with high quality [35]. The bunch thinning should be made even on all sides of the palm taking into account the distribution of bunch loads. This is essential to avoid curving of palm head as the case with the cultivar Barhi. Weak infested or infected bunches with undersized fruits and incomplete pollination should be removed first during thinning process. Latifian [37] reported that bunch pruning helped in decreasing the lesser moth, *Batrachedra* 

The use of insect-proof fruit bunch covers, made of woven monofilament polyethylene yarn (40 mesh), excludes all insect pests including beetles, ants, flies, rats, and birds (**Figure 7**). These bags are more expensive than the loose net bags. Bunch covering and bunch-remained pruning had suitable effects in decreasing the date spider mite, *Oligonychus afrasiaticus*, raisin moth *Cadra figulilella*, and the lesser date moth, *Batrachedra amydraula* infestation [38, 39]. Early harvesting of cultivars such as Barhee, Deglet Noor, and Medjool provides satisfactory control against ripening dates including date moth, raisin moth, carob moth, greater date moth, and sap beetles [40, 41]. Fruit bagging and early harvesting provide effective control against fruit depredation by frugivorous birds [42]. Culling of infected/ infested date fruit during harvesting and field drying is considered as an important step in the management of pests and diseases during transit and storage [36].

Both field and palm sanitation can have a profound effect in reducing the population of pests and diseases of date palm. The removal of fallen date fruits on the basin of the palm and in the leaf axil of unpruned palms helps provide control for the nitidulid beetles, lesser date moth, and other insect pests [40]. The fallen fruits provide suitable breeding site for these insect pests as well as for rats and birds. Thus, all dried litter around palms should be carefully removed. In organic farms, grazing animals such as goats, horses, and donkeys may be used to clean weeds, fallen fruits, and other farm wastes [40]. Neglected date palm farms represent suitable breeding sites for serious date palm pests including the red palm weevils, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle [29, 35]; thus, infested old neglected palms

**6.4 Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies of pests**

The date palm agroecosystem comprises diverse groups of natural enemies including insect predators, parasitoids, spiders, predatory mites, birds, entomopathogenic nematodes, and microorganisms. In this respect, El-Shafie et al. [26] *Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84483*

*Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture*

population growth, and severity of injury [15].

*6.3.4 Pollination, fruit, and bunch thinning*

e.Cutting frond base should be inclined outward with downsloping 45° to avoid accumulation of rainwater in the area between the base of the frond and trunk.

f. Disinfection of pruning equipment such as saws, sheers, and sickles to avoid the spread of fungal diseases such as black scorch and *Fusarium* wilts.

It has been stated that tillage practices and leaf pruning had the greatest effect in reducing termite, long antennae, and horned beetles, respectively. On the other hand, sucker removal operations had the greatest effect in reducing the severity of injuries of horned and long antennae beetles in date palm trees [15]. In addition, larvae of long antennae beetles can complete overwintering in the petioles of damaged leaves. Therefore, pruning the dry, damaged, and old leaves can reduce the severity of injuries of borer pests. Termites attack the dry and damaged parts of date palm tree, so pruning the petiole is very effective in reducing nutrient availability,

For good quality date fruits, pollen grain should be obtained from certified bodies to be sure that they are free of pests and diseases such as the inflorescence beetle *Macrocoma* sp. and the fungal pathogen *Mauginiella scaettae* and *Thielaviopsis* 

*paradoxa*, which cause Khamedj inflorescence rot and black scorch diseases,

*Pruned palm trunk showing cut frond (A), fibers (B), and cut frond base or petiole pruning (C).*

**148**

**Figure 6.**

respectively [36]. In this respect, the author stated that extracting pollen and mixing with talc/flour or with water for mechanical pollination proved to be cost-effective and more efficient in prevention of inflorescence pests and disease than traditional pollination methods.

Fruit thinning has two types: strand thinning either made by cutting the end of the strands or removal 30% of the strands from the center of the spathes [35]. It is carried out in February–March 2–3 days after female spathes opening and before pollination. Bunch thinning, on the other hand, involves the removal of the whole bunch and is usually done after pollination. It is carried out in a way that 6–8 bunches are left in each mature date palm. The number of bunches per palm should corresponds to the number of green functioning fronds, i.e., 9–12 green fronds per bunch to ensure high yield of date fruits with high quality [35]. The bunch thinning should be made even on all sides of the palm taking into account the distribution of bunch loads. This is essential to avoid curving of palm head as the case with the cultivar Barhi. Weak infested or infected bunches with undersized fruits and incomplete pollination should be removed first during thinning process. Latifian [37] reported that bunch pruning helped in decreasing the lesser moth, *Batrachedra amydraula* infestation.

### *6.3.5 Fruit bunch bagging, harvesting, and sorting*

The use of insect-proof fruit bunch covers, made of woven monofilament polyethylene yarn (40 mesh), excludes all insect pests including beetles, ants, flies, rats, and birds (**Figure 7**). These bags are more expensive than the loose net bags. Bunch covering and bunch-remained pruning had suitable effects in decreasing the date spider mite, *Oligonychus afrasiaticus*, raisin moth *Cadra figulilella*, and the lesser date moth, *Batrachedra amydraula* infestation [38, 39]. Early harvesting of cultivars such as Barhee, Deglet Noor, and Medjool provides satisfactory control against ripening dates including date moth, raisin moth, carob moth, greater date moth, and sap beetles [40, 41]. Fruit bagging and early harvesting provide effective control against fruit depredation by frugivorous birds [42]. Culling of infected/ infested date fruit during harvesting and field drying is considered as an important step in the management of pests and diseases during transit and storage [36].

#### *6.3.6 Phytosanitation in date palm groves*

Both field and palm sanitation can have a profound effect in reducing the population of pests and diseases of date palm. The removal of fallen date fruits on the basin of the palm and in the leaf axil of unpruned palms helps provide control for the nitidulid beetles, lesser date moth, and other insect pests [40]. The fallen fruits provide suitable breeding site for these insect pests as well as for rats and birds. Thus, all dried litter around palms should be carefully removed. In organic farms, grazing animals such as goats, horses, and donkeys may be used to clean weeds, fallen fruits, and other farm wastes [40]. Neglected date palm farms represent suitable breeding sites for serious date palm pests including the red palm weevils, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle [29, 35]; thus, infested old neglected palms should be eradicated.

#### **6.4 Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies of pests**

The date palm agroecosystem comprises diverse groups of natural enemies including insect predators, parasitoids, spiders, predatory mites, birds, entomopathogenic nematodes, and microorganisms. In this respect, El-Shafie et al. [26]

#### **Figure 7.**

*The white-eared bulbul Pycnonotus leucotis (top), damage on dates due to bulbul (bottom left), and bunch covering to control birds (bottom right).*

listed 90 species of predators and parasitoids from 9 orders and 23 families. Out of the listed species, the most important are the general predator *Chrysoperla carnea* and the braconid wasp *Bracon* spp. that is highly associated with the date moth *Cadra cautella*. Predatory mites from the family Phytoseiidae such as *Phytoseiulus persimilis* and *Neoseiulus* sp. and *Trichogramma* parasitoids are common. Al-Khatri [43] reported more than 70% parasitism of Dubas bug in Oman by the specialist egg parasitoid, *Pseudoligosita babylonica.* He also mentioned other species of Dubas natural enemies including the hymenopterous *Bocchus hyalinus*, *Aprostocetus* sp., and *Aphanogmus* sp. as well as the coccinellid *Cheliomenes sexmaculata*.

Several measures taken in date palm plantation can enhance survival and biodiversity of natural enemies. For example, the exclusion of synthetic pesticides by rules of organic farming is the cornerstone in conservation of natural enemies of pests. Intercropping of date palm with annual plants may avail new habitats for predators of pest such as the lacewing. Soils with high population of diversified beneficial organisms such as ground beetles (carabids) and earwigs, which are commonly to be encountered in the date palm agroecosystem (El-Shafie, unpublished data), are expected to maintain low levels of harmful pests. On the other hand, cultural control techniques create a balance between pests and their natural

**151**

*Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84483*

Red palm weevil, *Rhynchophorus ferrugineus*

Termites (*Microcerotermes diversus*, *Odontotermes smeathmani*)

Green pit scale insect (*Palmaspis phoenicis*) and white scale (*Parlatoria* 

Inflorescence weevil (*Derelomus* sp.), inflorescence beetle (*Macrocoma* sp.)

Bayoud disease, *Fusarium* wilt caused by *F. oxysporum*

Inflorescence rot (Khamedj disease) caused by *Mauginiella scaettae*

Black scorch disease caused by *Thielaviopsis paradoxa*

*Diplodia* disease (basal leaf rot) caused by the fungus *Diplodia phoenicum*

Lesser date moth (Humeira) (*Batrachedra amydraula*

The old world dust mite (*Oligonychus afrasiaticus*)

The longhorn beetle (*Jebusaea hammerschmidti*), the bunch borers (*Oryctes agamemnon arabicus*, *Oryctes elegans*), and the frond borer (*Phonopate frontalis*)

Meyer)

f. sp. *albedinis*

*blanchardi*)

**Pest Time of appearance Possible control measures**

Pheromone trapping of adults, removal and destruction of infested palm, strict quarantine measures to prevent entry of the weevil in date grooves, application of azadirachtin, the *Beauveria bassiana*, and other

litters from around palm basin, application of azadirachtin

fertilization and irrigation, application of mineral oils (96%) at a rate of 10/1000 liters of water, application of

predatory birds, such as owls, that can effectively control

Use of uninfested pollen, dusting with microfine sulfur at

incineration of infested palms, avoidance of the spread of the disease pathogen through irrigation, use of organic fertilizer rich in chitin to enhance the development of actinomycetes which antagonize the pathogen

with Bordeaux mixture (0.3–0.5%) after harvest and before inflorescence of the next year as preventive measures Treatment (dusting) with microfine sulfur at a

such as removal and destruction of badly infected palms, application of Bordeaux mixture, and use of microfine sulfur (80%) at a rate of 2.5 g/1000 liters of water after harvest

wounds in palms, disinfection of pruning equipment, application of copper sulfate or copper carbonate

of pheromone or light traps, use of *Bacillus thuringiensis*, biological control using egg parasitoid *Trichogramma* and

alternative host for the mite, use of windbreak to reduce dust storms, spraying, bunches with a strong stream of water to dislodge mites and destroy webbing; use of predatory mites and coccinellids, dusting bunches with

Pruning of old dry fronds, avoid using uncured farm manure as organic fertilizer, handpicking of larvae during frond base cutting, light trapping of adult beetles, maintaining healthy palms, application of the fungi *Beauveria bassiana*, *Metarhizium anisopliae*, and the entomopathogenic nematode *Rhabditis blumi*

biological control agents

as curative measures

azadirachtin

Weeds All the year round Mechanical weeding, grazing by farm animals, use of

Rodents All the year round Use of mechanical traps, provision of nesting sites for

All the year round Pruning and removal of infested fronds, adequate

covers to smother weeds

rodents in date palm grooves

a rate of 50 g/ palm

All the year round Cultivation of resistant date palms, removal and

February–March Avoid the use of infected pollen, treatment of the palm

All the year round Avoid making wound on the palm, sanitation measures

All the year round Use of healthy uninfected offshoots, avoidance of making

February–March Field sanitation including removal of fallen fruits, use

the larval parasitoid *Bracon* sp.

April–July Removal of weeds around palms, which may act as

sulfur

April–July Larvae of the longhorn beetle are found inside the palm all year round

rate of 50 g/palm

All the year round Keeping palm healthy palms, removal of dry fronds and

All the year round with adult peaks in March–May and October–November

With beginning of inflorescence February–March *Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84483*

*Multifunctionality and Impacts of Organic and Conventional Agriculture*

listed 90 species of predators and parasitoids from 9 orders and 23 families. Out of the listed species, the most important are the general predator *Chrysoperla carnea* and the braconid wasp *Bracon* spp. that is highly associated with the date moth *Cadra cautella*. Predatory mites from the family Phytoseiidae such as *Phytoseiulus persimilis* and *Neoseiulus* sp. and *Trichogramma* parasitoids are common. Al-Khatri [43] reported more than 70% parasitism of Dubas bug in Oman by the specialist egg parasitoid, *Pseudoligosita babylonica.* He also mentioned other species of Dubas natural enemies including the hymenopterous *Bocchus hyalinus*, *Aprostocetus* sp.,

*The white-eared bulbul Pycnonotus leucotis (top), damage on dates due to bulbul (bottom left), and bunch* 

and *Aphanogmus* sp. as well as the coccinellid *Cheliomenes sexmaculata*.

Several measures taken in date palm plantation can enhance survival and biodiversity of natural enemies. For example, the exclusion of synthetic pesticides by rules of organic farming is the cornerstone in conservation of natural enemies of pests. Intercropping of date palm with annual plants may avail new habitats for predators of pest such as the lacewing. Soils with high population of diversified beneficial organisms such as ground beetles (carabids) and earwigs, which are commonly to be encountered in the date palm agroecosystem (El-Shafie, unpublished data), are expected to maintain low levels of harmful pests. On the other hand, cultural control techniques create a balance between pests and their natural

**150**

**Figure 7.**

*covering to control birds (bottom right).*



#### **Table 3.**

*Calendar of major pests and diseases in organically grown date palms and their management in the Gulf region.*

enemies, and they are more effective in the prevention of outbreaks of date palm borer pests [15]. The growing of hedgerows, strip crops, and windbreaks provides suitable habitats and source of pollen and nectar for beneficial organisms [3, 16]. Provision of nesting boxes for owls in date palm groves has a noticeable reduction in the population of field rats [27]. In addition to the abovementioned measures to conserve natural enemies, repeated release of purchased predators and parasitoids can maintain their numbers, which cause substantial reduction in pest populations. In this context, Ali and Hama [33] reported that the release of *Trichogramma* sp. twice a year at a rate of 300–500 individuals/palm contributed significantly in the integrated management of the lesser date moth, *C. cautella*.

#### **6.5 Synopsis**

The major date palm pests and diseases prevailing in organic date palm plantation, which cause economic damage, are listed in **Table 3**, with possible measures to control them.

## **7. Impact of pest management in organic farming on the environment**

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, pest management in organic farming depends mainly on crop husbandry and biological control. The prohibition of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides leads to conservation of natural enemies including predators and parasitoids. The absence of harmful pesticides also increases diversity of pollinators of crops and minimizes pesticide residues in food products [13, 16, 19]. The community of microorganisms flourishes well in organically managed farms leading to increased organic matter decomposition, soil fertility, and sustainability of the ecosystem. Organic farming enhances the biodiversity of the ecosystem through multicropping and growing of hedges and refuges for beneficial insects as well as wildlife [3]. Preserving biodiversity contributes much in reducing the initial invasion and subsequent establishment of organic farms by pests and diseases [3, 8, 9, 44].

## **8. Conclusions**

Crop protection in organic farming is more preventive than curative. Thus, husbandry practices such as crop rotation, fertilization, cultivation, use of resistant

**153**

**Author details**

Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: elshafie62@yahoo.com

*Insect Pest Management in Organic Farming System DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84483*

potential role in pest management

mendations would include:

herbivores

techniques

varieties, and preservation of natural enemies play an essential role in pest management. Plant protection products (PPPs) permitted in organic farming should only be used when cultural and biological controls fail to suppress pest populations below economic damage levels. Floral and faunal diversities represent the cornerstone in the strategy of managing pests and diseases under organic production system. Crop protection program in organic farming needs to be documented to allow inspectors to file their reports, which are essential for the certification process. The documents needed are a well-written plan, copies of scouting records and protocols used in monitoring of different pests, and provision of pest management guidelines, according to the organic standards, if available. For optimizing pest management tactics in organic farming, future research priorities and recom-

i.Long-term ecological studies on ecosystem biodiversity to elucidate its

bial preparations for use in pest population suppression

iii.Exploitation of inherited resistance in different crops against plant

ii.Testing more plant protection products including plant extracts and micro-

iv.Strengthening participatory research approach with organic farmers and encouraging citizen science to optimize existing practices and develop new

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
