2.2 In a dialog with indigenous communities for better understanding of climate change in the Arctic: the Yakutia case

In 2017, an expedition aimed to the research on socioeconomic and environmental problems of the Arctic indigenous communities was organized by the financial aid of the Russian Fund for Basic Research (RFBR) to the Anabar National (Dolgan-Evenk) ulus (district) and Ust-Yanskiy region in Yakutia. These areas belonged to the compact residents of the indigenous peoples of the North. The study allowed to determine the attitude of the local population to traditional activities and to identify the socioeconomic problems of the territories and environmental threats to indigenous communities in the context of climate change. In the

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

Figure 5. Shallowing of the Anabar River in Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

structure of the respondents in the Anabar area, representatives of indigenous peoples were Evenks 43 people (33%) and Dolgans 71 people (55%) (Figure 7) (Table 2).

It is worth noting that this ratio between men and women, when the number of women prevails, is typical for indigenous communities, since it is associated with the high mortality of men engaged in traditional crafts: hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding. In addition, we can add problems of alcoholism reducing life expectancy, as well as chronic diseases caused by the harsh climate. As a result of the survey, residents of indigenous communities noted the following socioeconomic problems in their places of residence:

the northern regions of the planet (Alaska, Greenland, Scandinavian Peninsula, Far North of Russia) have a high content of harmful chemicals. Such types of food include meat and fat of marine mammals, reindeer offal, and others [15]. In this way, there are more and more people who are forced to refuse from the consumption of raw fish, which often turns out to be infected with phimosis and other diseases. As a result, the probability of losing certain cultural traditions is growing,

It is also necessary to say about the impact of climate change on the health of indigenous peoples. In recent years there has been an increase in mortality in the Arctic. Almost every year there are floods, with every third year—with disastrous consequences and deaths. The number of hits to hospitals increased due to sunstroke, dehydration, pressure drop, etc. Surface water pollution increased, both from floods and melting of permafrost. This leads to an increase in intestinal diseases, especially in the period of floods. Also, in Arctic regions, there is

increasing cases of oncological diseases [16]. Some experts attribute this to a more intensive chlorination due to the deterioration of water quality. The prolonged exposure to increased concentrations of chlorine and its constituents, according to doctors, increases the risk of cancer. Warming has widened the areas of spread of diseases, the carriers of which are insects or mites that spread to all new territories. One of the main risk groups for climate change is the children. In northern regions, up to 70% of children have deviations in health status. The incidence of children in the northern regions is significantly higher than the national average. Over the past 10 years, they tend to grow. Children of the North and children of other regions are in unequal starting conditions of life. Under the influence of unfavorable climatic factors and polluted environment, the age development of the immune system falls behind in children of the North for 2–5 years. Thus, for indigenous peoples of the Arctic, the warming of the climate and the associated lengthening of the season, during which the sea is not covered by ice, a decrease in the surface and thickness of sea ice, changes in the migration routes of wild reindeer and their food base, and a drop in the number of marine animals may lead to a reduction in traditional craft. This, in turn, will lead to a violation of traditional food. The indigenous inhabitants of Alaska and Greenland, Chukotka, and Yamal are already recording the negative effects of climate warming, which appeared in a decrease in thickness and an earlier opening of sea ice. These circumstances make it more difficult to hunt and lead to an increase in the number of injuries, which is already the cause of a significant number of deaths among

Figure 5 shows the riverbed of the Anabar River near the village of Saskylakh in the northwestern part of Yakutia. Fishermen are forced to manually drag the boat a

2.2 In a dialog with indigenous communities for better understanding of

In 2017, an expedition aimed to the research on socioeconomic and environmental problems of the Arctic indigenous communities was organized by the financial aid of the Russian Fund for Basic Research (RFBR) to the Anabar National (Dolgan-Evenk) ulus (district) and Ust-Yanskiy region in Yakutia. These areas belonged to the compact residents of the indigenous peoples of the North. The study allowed to determine the attitude of the local population to traditional activities and to identify the socioeconomic problems of the territories and environmental threats to indigenous communities in the context of climate change. In the

since food is an integral part of the traditional way of life and culture.

Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change

indigenous peoples of the North [17].

78

few kilometers downstream to reach the fairway (Figure 6).

climate change in the Arctic: the Yakutia case

1. Increase in morbidity and mortality of the population, 20.7%

4.The lack of organized forms of leisure, 14.1%

5. Problems of selling traditional craft products, 12.3%

3. Alcoholism, 18.3%

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

6.Outflow of youth, 12.0%

7. Crime rate, 4.5%

81

2. Loss of communication between people and their culture, traditions, 18.3%

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective

It should be noted that the majority of respondents attributed an increase in morbidity and mortality of the population with active industrial development of territories of traditional nature use. However, these are often only subjective assessments, since the problem of early diagnosis of diseases in the Arctic regions of Russia is particularly acute, and not only instruments and specialists are available in the district centers that could conduct regular medical checkups of the population but even a morgue, i.e., in rural settlements there is no way to establish reliably the cause of death. In most cases, early and sudden deaths, the local population refers to oncological diseases as the consequences of the activity of an industrial enterprise in the territory of their living. In the course of a poll among the inhabitants of indigenous communities, it was found that a high mortality rate is also associated with the problem of alcoholism and crimes committed under the influence of alcohol. The traditional types of economic activity associated with hunting and fishing also endanger life: water safety rules are not followed as well as dealing with weapons. Among environmental problems, the majority of respondents noted the decline in traditional craft facilities, which is directly attributed to climate change (e.g., the wild reindeer changes its migration routes under the influence of this factor and, as in the case of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), goes to the Krasnoyarsk Territory). According to observations of indigenous peoples, winters become warmer, which is expressed in heavy snowfalls and increased winter temperatures. This leads to river spill in spring, flooding of villages, and loss of the fishing opportunity in the traditional way, as the fish goes deeper. Flood threatens another serious problem for traditional craft—broken trees, which the river carries, can break the seines, which means that an indigenous individual and his family can be deprived of food. Many of the representatives of indigenous communities also note the man-made factor pollution of rivers due to the implementation of industrial projects, shipping, etc. The Ust-Yanskiy region, the second researched area, has specificity concluded in a huge accumulated damage due to a previous gold extractive mine Kular and closed settlements (Vlasovo, Severniy) caused by mass outflow migration since 1998 when this mine was closed. The barbaric way of extracting gold from only the large and medium fractions, the pursuit of the indicators, led to the fact that there is still enough gold in the recycled dumps that can be produced. Since 2017, the license for processing and restoring Kular mine has been transferred to Arctic Capital LLC, which has undertaken the task of eliminating the accumulated environmental damage, recultivation of soil, employment of the local population among indigenous peoples in the newly discovered deposit, and procurement of traditional products (venison, fish, etc.). The concept of social responsibility of business comes to the Russian part of the Arctic, and it becomes one of the few ways to preserve indigenous community and people on the place of their original habitat (Figure 8).

#### Figure 7.

Ratio of men and women in the total number of respondents.


### Table 2.

Distribution of respondents who participated in the survey, by settlements in the district.


As can be seen from the survey results presented, the majority of the respondents connect the socioeconomic problems of the territory with the lack of a stable income, the need for employment, and the underdeveloped infrastructure. In this regard, the implementation of investment projects for the industrial development of territories can create additional jobs for the local population. It should be noted that in the experience of some Russian regions, there are examples of the implementation of a targeted policy for the local labor market development. For example, for several years in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), JSC Almazy Anabara (Alrosa group) has been implementing the educational program, which provides training for the company's interests and the residents of indigenous communities, where an investment project on the extraction of minerals starts. The survey made it possible to determine the list of sociocultural problems that concern the local population:

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765


It should be noted that the majority of respondents attributed an increase in morbidity and mortality of the population with active industrial development of territories of traditional nature use. However, these are often only subjective assessments, since the problem of early diagnosis of diseases in the Arctic regions of Russia is particularly acute, and not only instruments and specialists are available in the district centers that could conduct regular medical checkups of the population but even a morgue, i.e., in rural settlements there is no way to establish reliably the cause of death. In most cases, early and sudden deaths, the local population refers to oncological diseases as the consequences of the activity of an industrial enterprise in the territory of their living. In the course of a poll among the inhabitants of indigenous communities, it was found that a high mortality rate is also associated with the problem of alcoholism and crimes committed under the influence of alcohol. The traditional types of economic activity associated with hunting and fishing also endanger life: water safety rules are not followed as well as dealing with weapons.

Among environmental problems, the majority of respondents noted the decline in traditional craft facilities, which is directly attributed to climate change (e.g., the wild reindeer changes its migration routes under the influence of this factor and, as in the case of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), goes to the Krasnoyarsk Territory). According to observations of indigenous peoples, winters become warmer, which is expressed in heavy snowfalls and increased winter temperatures. This leads to river spill in spring, flooding of villages, and loss of the fishing opportunity in the traditional way, as the fish goes deeper. Flood threatens another serious problem for traditional craft—broken trees, which the river carries, can break the seines, which means that an indigenous individual and his family can be deprived of food. Many of the representatives of indigenous communities also note the man-made factor pollution of rivers due to the implementation of industrial projects, shipping, etc.

The Ust-Yanskiy region, the second researched area, has specificity concluded in a huge accumulated damage due to a previous gold extractive mine Kular and closed settlements (Vlasovo, Severniy) caused by mass outflow migration since 1998 when this mine was closed. The barbaric way of extracting gold from only the large and medium fractions, the pursuit of the indicators, led to the fact that there is still enough gold in the recycled dumps that can be produced. Since 2017, the license for processing and restoring Kular mine has been transferred to Arctic Capital LLC, which has undertaken the task of eliminating the accumulated environmental damage, recultivation of soil, employment of the local population among indigenous peoples in the newly discovered deposit, and procurement of traditional products (venison, fish, etc.). The concept of social responsibility of business comes to the Russian part of the Arctic, and it becomes one of the few ways to preserve indigenous community and people on the place of their original habitat (Figure 8).

1. High prices for food products, 22.5%

Ratio of men and women in the total number of respondents.

Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change

4.Old state of housing and communal services, 19.1%

7. Low level of equipping educational institutions, 3.1%

As can be seen from the survey results presented, the majority of the respondents connect the socioeconomic problems of the territory with the lack of a stable income, the need for employment, and the underdeveloped infrastructure. In this regard, the implementation of investment projects for the industrial development of territories can create additional jobs for the local population. It should be noted that in the experience of some Russian regions, there are examples of the implementation of a targeted policy for the local labor market development. For example, for several years in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), JSC Almazy Anabara (Alrosa group) has been implementing the educational program, which provides training for the company's interests and the residents of indigenous communities, where an investment project on the extraction of minerals starts. The survey made it possible to determine the list of sociocultural problems that concern the local population:

Indigenous community Respondents Share of respondents from the total number, %

Yuryung-Khaya 29 22 Saskylakh 101 78 Total 130 1000

Distribution of respondents who participated in the survey, by settlements in the district.

2. The lack of jobs, 20.2%

Figure 7.

Table 2.

80

3. Low level of income, 19.7%

5. Poor transport accessibility, 9.0%

6.Low level of medical services, 6.5%

Figure 8. Accumulated environmental damage in Vlasovo, Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

The specificity of the researched territory is its inaccessibility, which has a negative impact on the development of traditional spheres of economic activity. Producing objects of traditional nature use (fish, berries, furs) involves not only consumption for personal purposes but also the need to transport them to the market in larger settlements. The lack of roads and the high cost of transportation by air or auto trucks make economic activity (trade) by-products of traditional nature use almost impossible. In the Ust-Yanskiy area, the main source of income is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, which brings a significant income to the tribal communities and individual entrepreneurs. However, this type of activity requires special training (traditional knowledge, physical form, etc.) and technical equipment (pumps, boats, etc.). Although there are widespread cases of attempts by local residents to obtain tusks and without the necessary equipment, which leads to lethal incidents. On average, according to local residents, the "washing" season is about 100 days, for which one well-trained person can collect from 500 to 800 kg of tusks. In monetary terms, such a "crop" can fluctuate from 10 to 15 million rubles or 160,000–230,000 US\$. Moreover, a hot summer with anomalous temperatures is considered by local hunters for tusks as a blessing, since actively melting permafrost itself gives away the hidden remains of ancient animals hidden for thousands of years. It should be noted that in the villages where the main activity is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, one can see expensive modern machinery that local authorities do not always have (Figure 9).

The purchased transport equipment allows local residents to develop trade between settlements within the region. Given their remoteness from each other, and the impossibility of year-round traffic, this is an important factor in actually helping people survive in such a harsh terrain. This fact makes indigenous peoples to adapt to the climate change in tundra in a unique way. For example, it is often possible to meet indigenous peoples who are using a winter mode of transport during the summer period, since flooded areas of the tundra do not allow movement on motorized wheeled vehicles, Figure 10.

considerably: "Winters have become warmer, and summer is unstable: there can be both hot days and cold months when berries do not have time to ripen" (reindeer herder Nikolai, 43); "The deer goes North and does not come here because of the midges, which is very much due to the heat" (hunter Michael, 52) (Figure 11). As a survey of the indigenous community showed, the traditional economy for the majority of local population ceases to be the basic criteria for determining the ethnic characteristics of the people. The high level of unemployment among indigenous peoples of the North, including the Evenks, Evens, and Dolgans, is compli-

Snowmobile in summer tundra on the way to Khayyr (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo:

Type of transport vehicle in a Kazachye indigenous community, Ust-Yanskiy region (photo: V. Gassiy).

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

cated by the peculiarities of the sectoral structure of employment and the

Figure 9.

Figure 10.

V. Gassiy).

83

Figure 10 shows a group of Evens moving on a snowmobile to their native village. In their opinion, in recent years the climate in the tundra has changed

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

Figure 9. Type of transport vehicle in a Kazachye indigenous community, Ust-Yanskiy region (photo: V. Gassiy).

#### Figure 10.

The specificity of the researched territory is its inaccessibility, which has a negative impact on the development of traditional spheres of economic activity. Producing objects of traditional nature use (fish, berries, furs) involves not only consumption for personal purposes but also the need to transport them to the market in larger settlements. The lack of roads and the high cost of transportation by air or auto trucks make economic activity (trade) by-products of traditional nature use almost impossible. In the Ust-Yanskiy area, the main source of income is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, which brings a significant income to the tribal communities and individual entrepreneurs. However, this type of activity requires special training (traditional knowledge, physical form, etc.) and technical equipment (pumps, boats, etc.). Although there are widespread cases of attempts by local residents to obtain tusks and without the necessary equipment, which leads to lethal incidents. On average, according to local residents, the "washing" season is about 100 days, for which one well-trained person can collect from 500 to 800 kg of tusks. In monetary terms, such a "crop" can fluctuate from 10 to 15 million rubles or 160,000–230,000 US\$. Moreover, a hot summer with anomalous temperatures is considered by local hunters for tusks as a blessing, since actively melting permafrost itself gives away the hidden remains of ancient animals hidden for thousands of years. It should be noted that in the villages where the main activity is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, one can see expensive modern machinery that local author-

Accumulated environmental damage in Vlasovo, Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

The purchased transport equipment allows local residents to develop trade between settlements within the region. Given their remoteness from each other, and the impossibility of year-round traffic, this is an important factor in actually helping people survive in such a harsh terrain. This fact makes indigenous peoples to adapt to the climate change in tundra in a unique way. For example, it is often possible to meet indigenous peoples who are using a winter mode of transport during the summer period, since flooded areas of the tundra do not allow move-

Figure 10 shows a group of Evens moving on a snowmobile to their native village. In their opinion, in recent years the climate in the tundra has changed

ities do not always have (Figure 9).

Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change

Figure 8.

82

ment on motorized wheeled vehicles, Figure 10.

Snowmobile in summer tundra on the way to Khayyr (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

considerably: "Winters have become warmer, and summer is unstable: there can be both hot days and cold months when berries do not have time to ripen" (reindeer herder Nikolai, 43); "The deer goes North and does not come here because of the midges, which is very much due to the heat" (hunter Michael, 52) (Figure 11).

As a survey of the indigenous community showed, the traditional economy for the majority of local population ceases to be the basic criteria for determining the ethnic characteristics of the people. The high level of unemployment among indigenous peoples of the North, including the Evenks, Evens, and Dolgans, is complicated by the peculiarities of the sectoral structure of employment and the

qualification and educational level of the economically active population. The suc-

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective

disappearing. Young people, being witnesses to the everyday, problematic life of the older generation, are of the opinion that work in reindeer husbandry, hunting, and fishing is not prestigious and does not bring sufficient income to create the corresponding financial situation of the family. The studied living conditions of indigenous communities on the territories of traditional nature use testify to the low level of social, communal, transport infrastructure development, which affects the behavior of the younger generation, their desire to go to the city or find work in extractive companies. "The benefits of civilization" in the form of the Internet, social web sources, and public amenities, along with climate changes, form challenges to the traditional way of life, undermining the age-old foundations of tribal communities. The domestic problems of indigenous peoples are one of the main reasons for the reluctance to remain on their land, to lead a traditional way of life, especially nomadic. Often villages in the territories of traditional residence are not provided with drinking water, and the only sources are river, rain water, or snow

Thus, climate change in the Arctic for indigenous communities is not a prospect of

the future, but a real threat to the traditional way of life, food security, and their habitat. We believe that ensuring the social status, decent level, and quality of life of the indigenous communities depends on the ways of preserving and developing the traditional economy on a new material, technical, and technological basis. Market relations in reindeer husbandry and hunting are constrained by the peculiarities of the nomadic way of life and the mentality of indigenous peoples. The theory and practice of managing changes in the territories of the traditional nature use of the Arctic require a critical rethinking of established views. In the coming years, new management approaches will be needed to quickly respond to changes in the Arctic territories, as climate change and global warming lead to the biggest social problem changing the traditional way of life of indigenous peoples. On the other hand, industrial development expands the area of its presence in the Arctic, which creates not only challenges for the indigenous population but also the opportunities to preserve their culture, traditions, and crafts. In this regard, it is necessary to introduce into the practice of public administration the decision-making model for choosing investment projects based on the priorities of local development, the interests not only of the state and business but also of the indigenous communities [18]. Therefore, in order to solve the problem of survival and adaptation of Arctic indigenous communities in the context of climate change, a proactive reaction of science and practice is needed, based on complex sociological, ethno-cultural, ecological-economic, and statistical

cession of generations in the traditional sectors of the North is gradually

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

(Figure 12).

3. Conclusion

85

studies of traditional nature-use territories.

Figure 11. Example of private household in Kazachye (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

qualification and educational level of the economically active population. The succession of generations in the traditional sectors of the North is gradually disappearing. Young people, being witnesses to the everyday, problematic life of the older generation, are of the opinion that work in reindeer husbandry, hunting, and fishing is not prestigious and does not bring sufficient income to create the corresponding financial situation of the family. The studied living conditions of indigenous communities on the territories of traditional nature use testify to the low level of social, communal, transport infrastructure development, which affects the behavior of the younger generation, their desire to go to the city or find work in extractive companies. "The benefits of civilization" in the form of the Internet, social web sources, and public amenities, along with climate changes, form challenges to the traditional way of life, undermining the age-old foundations of tribal communities. The domestic problems of indigenous peoples are one of the main reasons for the reluctance to remain on their land, to lead a traditional way of life, especially nomadic. Often villages in the territories of traditional residence are not provided with drinking water, and the only sources are river, rain water, or snow (Figure 12).

## 3. Conclusion

Figure 11.

Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change

Figure 12.

84

(photo: V. Gassiy).

Example of private household in Kazachye (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

Rainwater harvesting for personal consumption, Khayyr (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia

Thus, climate change in the Arctic for indigenous communities is not a prospect of the future, but a real threat to the traditional way of life, food security, and their habitat. We believe that ensuring the social status, decent level, and quality of life of the indigenous communities depends on the ways of preserving and developing the traditional economy on a new material, technical, and technological basis. Market relations in reindeer husbandry and hunting are constrained by the peculiarities of the nomadic way of life and the mentality of indigenous peoples. The theory and practice of managing changes in the territories of the traditional nature use of the Arctic require a critical rethinking of established views. In the coming years, new management approaches will be needed to quickly respond to changes in the Arctic territories, as climate change and global warming lead to the biggest social problem changing the traditional way of life of indigenous peoples. On the other hand, industrial development expands the area of its presence in the Arctic, which creates not only challenges for the indigenous population but also the opportunities to preserve their culture, traditions, and crafts. In this regard, it is necessary to introduce into the practice of public administration the decision-making model for choosing investment projects based on the priorities of local development, the interests not only of the state and business but also of the indigenous communities [18]. Therefore, in order to solve the problem of survival and adaptation of Arctic indigenous communities in the context of climate change, a proactive reaction of science and practice is needed, based on complex sociological, ethno-cultural, ecological-economic, and statistical studies of traditional nature-use territories.

Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change
