2.1 Climate change impacts on the traditional way of life

The impact of climate change on indigenous peoples is diverse. This is especially reflected in health and the traditional way of life. Health as a factor in the well-being of indigenous peoples worsens, which shows itself in a high level of mortality with relatively high birth rates, problems with alcoholism, and diseases of the digestive system due to poor-quality drinking water. Significant climate change resulting in the increase of natural disasters, abnormal winter and summer temperatures, floods, mudflows, and landslides increases the number of deaths from unnatural causes, injuries, and subsequent health problems. Climatic changes are also the cause of more serious phenomena, as the deterioration of the parasitic and epidemiological situation. Degradation of permafrost in areas where this type of soil has been preserved for centuries, and on the basis of which the habitat of indigenous peoples and their feeding systems has been formed, leads to catastrophic consequences. Moreover, changes in the permafrost sometimes have unexplained causes, which raise an active discussion in the scientific community. So, in 2014 in Yamal, a giant dip of a soil of unknown origin was discovered. A huge funnel was noticed by helicopter pilots who serve the oil and gas fields on the Yamal Peninsula. The fault is located next to the Bovanenkovo gas field (Yamal LNG), one of the largest in Yamal—the place of one of the most innovative projects of modern Russia for liquefied gas production jointly implemented with Italy, France, Japan, and China (Figure 3).

Later Russian scientists from Yamal managed to descend for the first time to the bottom of this dip—to a depth of 200 m. The hole has a cone-shaped view with dimensions of 60 and 40 m. They took more than a dozen samples for chemical analyses, including ice and soil. It turned out that the Yamal "black hole" from the

#### Figure 3.

Yamal hole in 30 km from the Bovanenkovo gas field. (source: https://www.moya-planeta.ru/news/view/ uchenye\_vpervye\_issledovali\_dno\_yamalskoj\_voronki\_8251/)

population's way of life, and tribal communities under the influence, including climate change. In Table 1 the main indicators describing the territories of traditional residence and traditional economic activity of the indigenous peoples of Russia are presented. This type of territory is located in 21 regions of the Russian Federation with reindeer pastures, hunting grounds and rich fishing opportunities, and gathering of wild plants on a total area of 994.2 million hectares, including lands

Indicators of the social development level of territories of traditional nature use in Siberia and the Far East of

Number of enterprises for utilization and neutralization of domestic and industrial waste,

151

The numbers of the permanent population of the land territories of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation as

Education organizations, units 1735 Number of medical treatment and prophylactic organizations, units 2045 Number of cultural and leisure type organizations, units 834 Libraries and museums, units 542 Number of sports facilities, units 10,161 Hospitality facilities and accommodation 1123 Shops and supermarket, units 28,364 Restaurants and cafes 3773 Settlements with post office, units 1735 Commissioning of residential buildings, square meters 1,496,550 Number of people living in dilapidated houses 192,411 Extension of a street water supply network, meters 7,566,841.0 Including in need of replacement, meters 2,411,098.0

Climate change leads to the transformation of the traditional way of life and also forces regional and local governments to seek new approaches to managing these changes, allowing them to adapt and adequately respond to emerging challenges. Prospects for the revitalization of the industrial development of the North in the future involve the withdrawal of an increasing number of lands of traditional nature

used directly as reindeer pastures—407.0 million hectares [8].

Figure 2.

units

the Russian Federation in 2017 [9].

Table 1.

74

of January 1, 2018 (number of people) [7].

Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change

inside is covered with a layer of ice of unknown composition, which has yet to be investigated in the laboratory. Analyses of air inside the funnel revealed the absence of harmful impurities and dangerous gases—on the basis of this fact, scientists concluded that in a mysterious earthly failure, a new life could arise in time. The scientists noted that they failed to solve the main riddle—how the process of a mysterious holes' formation was going on in the Yamal land. The most authoritative experts consider these holes to be the result of the process of degassing the permafrost due to global warming [11]. Currently, the problem of tundra transformation under the climate change factors is becoming a significant threat to the traditional forms of economic activity, especially reindeer herding. The formation of thermokarst lakes, the degradation of biota, and the waterlogging of significant areas of the tundra during the summer period are risk factors and cause deer to change routes, and in the spring and autumn, a phenomenon such as ice, which is ruinous for reindeer herding, began to increase. Due to the steady increase in the amount of precipitation in recent years, a deeper snow cover is formed, creating difficulties for animals to hoof the reindeer moss. At the same time, the late arrival of colds led to difficulties in the transition of reindeers to winter pastures (Figure 4).

anthrax. Forty-two thousand representatives of the indigenous peoples of the North—14,000 of them live in a traditional nomadic way of life—and the largest reindeer herd in the world live in the territory of Yamal, so the ecological component plays an important role in preserving the traditional economic activities of indigenous peoples [12]. One of the main threats is the change in the water regime of rivers. Most of the modern settlements in the North are located on the banks of rivers. In recent years, spring floods have sharply increased, floods have become more frequent, and the processes of erosion of shores have accelerated, which bring great disasters to the population. For example, in the regions of northern Yakutia, the banks of the rivers Lena, Yana, and Anabar collapse under the influence of high temperatures and melting of permafrost, which leads to shallowing of rivers, a change

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective

in the relief of the bottom. As a consequence of these processes, boats of local fishermen cannot sail along the riverbed; the fish does not go far downstream; thus indigenous peoples are deprived of the type of product that forms the basis of their food ration. Reduction of fishing takes place together with a decrease in the level of production of hunting objects (wild reindeer changes migration routes; the number of fur-bearing animals decreases; because of warming, the meat of a wild animal is often affected by a viral infection or parasites), i.e., we are talking about the problem of

Access to resources is closely linked to security, which is provided by traditional

knowledge, accumulated for millennia. But the transformations that are taking place change the reality; the representatives of indigenous peoples are increasing in situations where their practice, experience, and knowledge cannot help them. This leads to an increase in the number of accidents, especially those associated with late freeze-up, ice, and early floods. One of the consequences is the restriction of access to traditional food. In addition to the above factors, one of the reasons is the deterioration of storage conditions. In recent years, the quality of food has sharply deteriorated. So, in the Bulunsky District of Yakutia, local residents often face the problem of phimosis (cysticercosis) caught from the Lena River. It should be noted that a similar problem is a characteristic of other regions of the Arctic where indigenous peoples eat fresh or slightly salted fish [13]. In 2016, Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance in the Komi Republic during federal monitoring sampled liver and kidney samples of slaughtered animals belonging to the reindeer herding enterprises of Intinsky and Usinsky districts. Sixty-four samples were examined, of which 52 results were found with excess of mercury—the maximum permissible level was exceeded by 0.9 mg/kg—and 43 results with excess of cadmium, the maximum permissible norm is exceeded by 8.3 mg/kg [14]. In addition, in the liver samples, an excess of the normative indices of dioxins was detected—the maximum permissible rate was exceeded by 8.3 times. However, meat and other offal (with the exception of kidneys and liver) do not contain dangerous chemical pollutants and do not pose a danger to citizens. Accumulation of toxicants in the liver and kidneys of animals is due to the physiological properties of these organs, which are biological filters of organisms. Dioxins are formed in a number of industrial and natural processes, for example, in the production of chlorine and pesticides, burning fuel and debris, and forest fires. Cadmium and mercury pollute the environment both for natural and as a result of industrial activities. In particular, heavy metals pollute the environment during the smelting of nonferrous metals and other processes in the mining industry. It is believed that the northern communities of plants and animals tend to accumulate persistent contaminants, as they have a number of properties necessary for this, including the characteristics of the climate (preventing the destruction of substances) and food chains that are distinguished by a small variety of plant and animal species. According to the world scientific data, some traditional food of the inhabitants of

access to traditional types of resources.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

77

In the northern regions of Russia in recent years, there have been no isolated cases in which thousands of reindeers perished from hunger. The increase in the mean annual temperature is detrimental to the regions of permafrost, where the centers of anthrax are revealed during thawing. In the summer of 2016 on the territory of Yamal, an outbreak of anthrax was caused by an abnormal heat. The most dangerous infection was safely suspended in the permafrost for 75 years. The most objective cause of the outbreak was called climate warming. Abnormal heat in the tundra to +35°C kept for more than a month. Comprehensive measures were taken to protect Yamal reindeer herders from dangerous diseases. All the livestock of the deer are vaccinated; the animals are fitted with chips. Vaccination is conducted among the tundra population and specialists from the risk group: in 2017, about 8.2 thousand people were vaccinated in the region, and the entire number of reindeer and more than 730 thousand animals were vaccinated against

#### Figure 4.

Thermokarst lake in tundra with landscape degradation near Vorkuta, Komi Republic, Russia (photo: V. Gassiy).

## Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

anthrax. Forty-two thousand representatives of the indigenous peoples of the North—14,000 of them live in a traditional nomadic way of life—and the largest reindeer herd in the world live in the territory of Yamal, so the ecological component plays an important role in preserving the traditional economic activities of indigenous peoples [12]. One of the main threats is the change in the water regime of rivers. Most of the modern settlements in the North are located on the banks of rivers. In recent years, spring floods have sharply increased, floods have become more frequent, and the processes of erosion of shores have accelerated, which bring great disasters to the population. For example, in the regions of northern Yakutia, the banks of the rivers Lena, Yana, and Anabar collapse under the influence of high temperatures and melting of permafrost, which leads to shallowing of rivers, a change in the relief of the bottom. As a consequence of these processes, boats of local fishermen cannot sail along the riverbed; the fish does not go far downstream; thus indigenous peoples are deprived of the type of product that forms the basis of their food ration. Reduction of fishing takes place together with a decrease in the level of production of hunting objects (wild reindeer changes migration routes; the number of fur-bearing animals decreases; because of warming, the meat of a wild animal is often affected by a viral infection or parasites), i.e., we are talking about the problem of access to traditional types of resources.

Access to resources is closely linked to security, which is provided by traditional knowledge, accumulated for millennia. But the transformations that are taking place change the reality; the representatives of indigenous peoples are increasing in situations where their practice, experience, and knowledge cannot help them. This leads to an increase in the number of accidents, especially those associated with late freeze-up, ice, and early floods. One of the consequences is the restriction of access to traditional food. In addition to the above factors, one of the reasons is the deterioration of storage conditions. In recent years, the quality of food has sharply deteriorated. So, in the Bulunsky District of Yakutia, local residents often face the problem of phimosis (cysticercosis) caught from the Lena River. It should be noted that a similar problem is a characteristic of other regions of the Arctic where indigenous peoples eat fresh or slightly salted fish [13]. In 2016, Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance in the Komi Republic during federal monitoring sampled liver and kidney samples of slaughtered animals belonging to the reindeer herding enterprises of Intinsky and Usinsky districts. Sixty-four samples were examined, of which 52 results were found with excess of mercury—the maximum permissible level was exceeded by 0.9 mg/kg—and 43 results with excess of cadmium, the maximum permissible norm is exceeded by 8.3 mg/kg [14]. In addition, in the liver samples, an excess of the normative indices of dioxins was detected—the maximum permissible rate was exceeded by 8.3 times. However, meat and other offal (with the exception of kidneys and liver) do not contain dangerous chemical pollutants and do not pose a danger to citizens. Accumulation of toxicants in the liver and kidneys of animals is due to the physiological properties of these organs, which are biological filters of organisms. Dioxins are formed in a number of industrial and natural processes, for example, in the production of chlorine and pesticides, burning fuel and debris, and forest fires. Cadmium and mercury pollute the environment both for natural and as a result of industrial activities. In particular, heavy metals pollute the environment during the smelting of nonferrous metals and other processes in the mining industry. It is believed that the northern communities of plants and animals tend to accumulate persistent contaminants, as they have a number of properties necessary for this, including the characteristics of the climate (preventing the destruction of substances) and food chains that are distinguished by a small variety of plant and animal species. According to the world scientific data, some traditional food of the inhabitants of

inside is covered with a layer of ice of unknown composition, which has yet to be investigated in the laboratory. Analyses of air inside the funnel revealed the absence of harmful impurities and dangerous gases—on the basis of this fact, scientists concluded that in a mysterious earthly failure, a new life could arise in time. The scientists noted that they failed to solve the main riddle—how the process of a mysterious holes' formation was going on in the Yamal land. The most authoritative experts consider these holes to be the result of the process of degassing the permafrost due to global warming [11]. Currently, the problem of tundra transformation under the climate change factors is becoming a significant threat to the traditional

Arctic Studies - A Proxy for Climate Change

forms of economic activity, especially reindeer herding. The formation of thermokarst lakes, the degradation of biota, and the waterlogging of significant areas of the tundra during the summer period are risk factors and cause deer to change routes, and in the spring and autumn, a phenomenon such as ice, which is ruinous for reindeer herding, began to increase. Due to the steady increase in the amount of precipitation in recent years, a deeper snow cover is formed, creating difficulties for animals to hoof the reindeer moss. At the same time, the late arrival

of colds led to difficulties in the transition of reindeers to winter pastures

of the deer are vaccinated; the animals are fitted with chips. Vaccination is conducted among the tundra population and specialists from the risk group: in 2017, about 8.2 thousand people were vaccinated in the region, and the entire number of reindeer and more than 730 thousand animals were vaccinated against

Thermokarst lake in tundra with landscape degradation near Vorkuta, Komi Republic, Russia (photo: V.

In the northern regions of Russia in recent years, there have been no isolated cases in which thousands of reindeers perished from hunger. The increase in the mean annual temperature is detrimental to the regions of permafrost, where the centers of anthrax are revealed during thawing. In the summer of 2016 on the territory of Yamal, an outbreak of anthrax was caused by an abnormal heat. The most dangerous infection was safely suspended in the permafrost for 75 years. The most objective cause of the outbreak was called climate warming. Abnormal heat in the tundra to +35°C kept for more than a month. Comprehensive measures were taken to protect Yamal reindeer herders from dangerous diseases. All the livestock

(Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Gassiy).

76

the northern regions of the planet (Alaska, Greenland, Scandinavian Peninsula, Far North of Russia) have a high content of harmful chemicals. Such types of food include meat and fat of marine mammals, reindeer offal, and others [15]. In this way, there are more and more people who are forced to refuse from the consumption of raw fish, which often turns out to be infected with phimosis and other diseases. As a result, the probability of losing certain cultural traditions is growing, since food is an integral part of the traditional way of life and culture.

It is also necessary to say about the impact of climate change on the health of indigenous peoples. In recent years there has been an increase in mortality in the Arctic. Almost every year there are floods, with every third year—with disastrous consequences and deaths. The number of hits to hospitals increased due to sunstroke, dehydration, pressure drop, etc. Surface water pollution increased, both from floods and melting of permafrost. This leads to an increase in intestinal diseases, especially in the period of floods. Also, in Arctic regions, there is increasing cases of oncological diseases [16]. Some experts attribute this to a more intensive chlorination due to the deterioration of water quality. The prolonged exposure to increased concentrations of chlorine and its constituents, according to doctors, increases the risk of cancer. Warming has widened the areas of spread of diseases, the carriers of which are insects or mites that spread to all new territories. One of the main risk groups for climate change is the children. In northern regions, up to 70% of children have deviations in health status. The incidence of children in the northern regions is significantly higher than the national average. Over the past 10 years, they tend to grow. Children of the North and children of other regions are in unequal starting conditions of life. Under the influence of unfavorable climatic factors and polluted environment, the age development of the immune system falls behind in children of the North for 2–5 years. Thus, for indigenous peoples of the Arctic, the warming of the climate and the associated lengthening of the season, during which the sea is not covered by ice, a decrease in the surface and thickness of sea ice, changes in the migration routes of wild reindeer and their food base, and a drop in the number of marine animals may lead to a reduction in traditional craft. This, in turn, will lead to a violation of traditional food. The indigenous inhabitants of Alaska and Greenland, Chukotka, and Yamal are already recording the negative effects of climate warming, which appeared in a decrease in thickness and an earlier opening of sea ice. These circumstances make it more difficult to hunt and lead to an increase in the number of injuries, which is already the cause of a significant number of deaths among indigenous peoples of the North [17].

Figure 5 shows the riverbed of the Anabar River near the village of Saskylakh in the northwestern part of Yakutia. Fishermen are forced to manually drag the boat a few kilometers downstream to reach the fairway (Figure 6).

> structure of the respondents in the Anabar area, representatives of indigenous peoples were Evenks 43 people (33%) and Dolgans 71 people (55%) (Figure 7)

Indigenous Communities in the Arctic Change in Socio-Economic and Environmental Perspective

Collapse of the riverbank of Yana due to permafrost melting, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

It is worth noting that this ratio between men and women, when the number of women prevails, is typical for indigenous communities, since it is associated with the high mortality of men engaged in traditional crafts: hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding. In addition, we can add problems of alcoholism reducing life expectancy, as well as chronic diseases caused by the harsh climate. As a result of the survey, residents of indigenous communities noted the following socioeconomic

(Table 2).

79

Figure 6.

Figure 5.

Shallowing of the Anabar River in Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80765

problems in their places of residence:
