**Author details**

poultry litter in the Abbotsford area of British Columbia, Canada. The identified enterococcal isolates were found to be highly resistant to lincomycin (80.3%), tetracycline (65.3%), penicillin (61.1%) but showed low resistance towards to nitrofurantoin (3.8%), daptomycin (3.5%) and gentamycin (0.8%) [108]. There is a high possibility of multi-drug resistant enterococci in

*Proteus* is a genus of Gram-negative Proteobacteria which is widely distributed as saprophytes [109]. They are mainly found in decomposing animal matter, sewage, manure, mammalian intestine, human and animal fecal matter. They are mainly opportunistic pathogens responsible for nosocomial urinary and septic infections [110]. Three species, namely, *P. vulgaris, P. mirabilis* and *P. penneri* are the only opportunistic species responsible for human infections. Most strains of *P. mirabilis* are sensitive to ampicillin and cephalosporins whereas *P. vulgaris*

A study in Iran identified 54 *P. mirabilis* isolates from chicken intestines and 54 *P. mirabilis* isolates were screened for antimicrobial susceptibility to 13 antimicrobial agents. None of the *P. mirabilis* isolates in this study were found to be resistant to gentamycin. Over 90% of isolates were resistant to nalidixic acid, doxycycline and tetracycline. Less than a quarter of isolates were resistant to norfloxacin, ampicillin, amikacin and ceftriaxone. Nearly 96% of the isolates were resistant to at least two or more antibiotics. One isolate exhibited resistance to 10 antibiotics whereas three and five isolates were resistant to nine and seven antibiotics, respectively. The results showed that chicken could be a source of antibiotic resistant and multi-drug resistant *P. mirabilis* strains and these resistant strains can cause

A similar trend of antibiotic resistance was observed in 36 *P. mirabilis* isolates from chicken droppings from commercial poultry farms in Bangladesh. Nearly 95% of the isolates were resistant to tetracycline followed by nalidixic acid (89%) and almost 20% of the isolates were found to be resistant to ciprofloxacin and 84% of the isolates exhibited multidrug resistance [112].

Infections from other bacterial species could also result in the use of antibiotics. These include Mycoplasmosis (caused by *Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma meleagridi*s and *Mycoplasma synoviae*) [86], *Pasteurella multocida* and *Haemophilus gallinarum* infections [62, 113]. These infections usually require the use broad spectrum antibiotics including tylosin, aureomycin, terramycin, gallimycin, penicillin, erythromycin, sulfadimethoxine, sulfathiazole and other

Several bacterial species are the major causes of infections in poultry and other animal husbandry. Most of these infections are linked to foodborne outbreaks, live animal contact, poor

sulfa drugs administered either in the feed, drinking water or by injections [62].

worldwide problem both for veterinary sector and public health [111].

animal meat and fecal matter being transferred to humans [106].

strains are not sensitive to these antibiotics [109].

**5. Other species of importance**

**6. Conclusion**

**4.13.** *Proteus* **species**

42 Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat

Christian Agyare\*, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and Frank Boateng Osei

\*Address all correspondence to: cagyare.pharm@knust.edu.gh

Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
