**Author details**

of the comparison of measured MICs with established ECOFF cut-off values, was in accordance with the presence of the known resistance genes or mutations. In the case of telithromycin, however, the observed point mutations in the 23S rRNA, which is a well-known mechanism of resistance to these classes of antimicrobials, did not regularly cause phenotypic resistance. Another recent study on C. *jejuni* isolates from the poultry (n = 502) demonstrated successful use of genomics in the study of fluoroquinolone resistance [90]. The isolates were clustered according to the presence/absence of the *gyrA* mutations causing fluoroquinolone resistance. Beside the WGS of isolates from the mentioned study, previously published (ENA) *Campylobacter* genomes were included in the comparative analyses of the genomes. Although no significant associations were found between trade patterns, antimicrobial use in livestock and population of *C. jejuni*,

In conclusion, comparative genomics of WGS is increasingly used in the prediction of phenotypic antimicrobial resistance and surveillance of antimicrobial resistance of common zoonotic bacteria. However, as it is based on the detection of already known ARG, the success is highly dependent on the quality of databases, which need to be regularly updated with newly

Antimicrobial resistant zoonotic bacteria pose a serious risk to human health. High rates of FQ resistance in both *Salmonella* and *Campylobacter* are of concern due to their wide use for the treatment of human infections. In some regions of the EU, the level of FQ resistance is so high that *Campylobacter* infections cannot be treated with FQ anymore. In addition, the emergence of multi-drug resistant *Salmonella* and *Campylobacter* further limits the therapy options and is possibly associated with adverse treatment effects. Greater efforts are needed to limit the wide spread of AMR in zoonotic bacteria—implementation of antimicrobial stewardship, especially in the developing countries, development of novel antimicrobials, improvement of practices in the food production chain, reduction of the amounts of antimicrobials sold for use in livestock, improvement of AMR surveillance programs, in terms of greater harmonisation, and application of rapid sequence-based methods in the routine surveillance of antimicrobial resistance.

This work was supported by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS) through the Research program P4-0116 (Microbiology and Biotechnology of Food and Environment) and P4-0097

this approach proved to be successful, especially when big datasets are available.

discovered resistance mechanisms and well-curated.

(Nutrition and Microbial Ecology of Gastrointestinal Tract).

**6. Conclusion**

24 Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

No competing financial interests exist.

Vita Rozman, Bojana Bogovič Matijašić and Sonja Smole Možina\*

\*Address all correspondence to: sonja.smole@bf.uni-lj.si

Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
