7. Safety assessment of GM crops, food and feed

The current techniques utilized for the safety assessment of derivatives of genetically modified crops, particularly food- and feed-based derivatives, evolved from collaborations between international agencies, which include the United Nations' World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization [48] and the Organization for Economic Coordination and Development [49]. The techniques entail a comparative assessment between the characteristics of the modified crop and an existing crop, which is usually the parent crop from which the genetic modification was developed.

Research conducted by the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the FAO, showed no evidence of adverse effects of GM crops on the environment as well as no toxicity presented by the consumption of foods derived from GM crops [50, 51]. The results further showed that gene transfer that occurred from GM crops to the wild-type relative was similar to the occurrence obtained from traditional crops. Further research conducted on the environmental impact of GM crops found no evidence of negative effects [52].

effects, serve as the replication origin, as well as targeting transgene integration into the host genome [13]. Several authors evaluated the junction regions in transgene loci and found

In contrast to the random insertion of the Agrobacterium – and biolistic methods targeted at the nuclear genome, chloroplast transformation involves homologous recombination with sequences flanking the insertion site and transgene integration is therefore more specific and

Some consumer concerns brought forward were regarding the safety of GM crops, food and feed [42]. As a result, the production of GM crops led to increased investigations within government regulatory boards in terms of research required to determine the safety of these products [43]. Activists, particularly in Europe, have intensified their opposition to the introduction and production of GM crops, food and feed [44]. To date, no international consensus has been reached for evaluation of the safety of GM plants for consumption. Over the last decade, the safety of GM crops has been routinely tested in some countries and protein- and DNA-based methods have been developed for testing of GM crops. Worldwide, legislation now faces questions on the use and labeling requirements of GM crops and their derivatives. However, there are still concerns about the safety of GM crops [9, 45]. Also, GM crops could contain toxic substances produced as by-products of the expression of the transgene. Moreover, the GM crops might not be substantially equivalent at the genome-, proteome- and metabolome levels to traditional untransformed counterparts due to possible disruption of

Extensive safety assessments are an important component of the production of GM crops [46]. There are factors that are essential to interrogate to understand the impact of the expression of the "foreign" transgene on the expression of endogenous genes and on the host plant as a

The current techniques utilized for the safety assessment of derivatives of genetically modified crops, particularly food- and feed-based derivatives, evolved from collaborations between international agencies, which include the United Nations' World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization [48] and the Organization for Economic Coordination and Development [49]. The techniques entail a comparative assessment between the characteristics of the modified crop and an existing crop, which is usually the parent crop

Research conducted by the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the FAO, showed no evidence of adverse effects of GM crops on the environment as well as no toxicity presented by

genomic sequences that contained AT-rich MARs elements [13].

120 Transgenic Crops - Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives

6. General views on the safety of GM crops

the expression of endogenous genes.

7. Safety assessment of GM crops, food and feed

from which the genetic modification was developed.

whole [32, 47].

predictable [18].

Concerns that have been raised in terms of the safety of GM crops, environmental risks, protection of biodiversity and impact on human and animal health have been investigated through the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2000). This protocol has been used by countries to develop national GMO regulatory frameworks. Details required for application of the release of GMOs include a description of the GM plant, the GM trait, as well as the country of origin of the GM plant. Furthermore, requirements include general information on the release of the GM plant, description of GMderived products and uses, and description of field trials undertaken for the GM plant. In addition, details required for the release of the GM plant include description of the pollen spreading characteristics of the GM plant, handling of seeds and the vegetative reproduction methods of the plant. Moreover, information is required on transgenes and their respective products, which include information such as transgene expression levels, declaration on whether the expression is constitutive or induced and expression site on the plant. Additionally, information on the potential resistance to environmental or biological conditions, potential risks to human and animal health, potential long-term impact of the GM plant on biotic and abiotic components of the environment, and socio-economic impact of the GM plant on communities in the proposed release region. The release also requires information on how the GM plant will be monitored, how possible pathogenic and ecologically disruptive impacts will be evaluated, how unused parts of the GM plant will be disposed of and measures that will be used for risk management [42].
