**3. Directions for future research**

It is globally recognized that battling traffic congestion, spending a long time commuting, and exposure to atmospheric pollutants during the daily commute result in serious adverse effects on the health and general well-being of commuters. There is a paucity of epidemiological studies regarding the adverse health impacts of atmospheric air pollution, which is worsened by traffic-related air pollution in rapidly developing cities. Although commuting undeniably has a significant impact on public health outcomes, in the Asian region in particular, little empirical evidence has documented the adverse health effects associated with commuting. More research, especially in the form of longitudinal studies, is critically needed to provide insights into the population health impact of traffic-related air pollution in Asia, the world's most rapidly developing region.

**Acknowledgements**

15SUS and GC002A-15SUS.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

\*, Haridah Alias<sup>1</sup>

and Jinshun Zhao5

\*Address all correspondence to: wonglp@ummc.edu.my

**Conflict of interest**

**Author details**

Li Ping Wong<sup>1</sup>

Hualiang Lin4

**References**

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

University, Guangzhou, China

International. 2017;**101**:143-157

ronment Agency. 2010:31-33

Total Environment. 2003;**307**:141-165

Atmospheric Pollution Research. 2015;**6**:286-304

The study was funded by Grand Challenge-SUS (Sustainability Science) Grants GC002C-

, Nasrin Aghamohammadi<sup>2</sup>

2 Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Social and Preventive

4 Department of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen

5 Department of Preventive Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathological and Physiological Technology, Medical School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang, China

[1] Rivas I, Kumar P, Hagen-Zanker A. Exposure to air pollutants during commuting in London: Are there inequalities among different socio-economic groups? Environment

[2] Baldasano JM, Valera E, Jimenez P. Air quality data from large cities. The Science of the

[3] Martin J. The European environment: State and outlook 2010: Synthesis. European Envi-

[4] Gulia S, Nagendra SS, Khare M, Khanna I. Urban air quality management-a review.

3 Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya,

1 Julius Centre University of Malaya (JCUM), Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

, Nik Meriam Nik Sulaiman<sup>3</sup>

Commuting on Public Transport: Health Risks and Responses

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79694

,

49

Given the many factors such as vehicles, fuel type, topography, meteorological conditions, and a complex array of health determinants such as social, behavioral, and lifestyle factors that may influence the degree of atmospheric pollution and its subsequent impact on human health, emphasis is warranted across all countries on tailoring their health impact assessments according to the specific needs of the affected populations within cities. Measuring local specific health outcomes associated with using public transport would enable specific tailored monitoring and evaluation of and accountability for the health of the relevant population. Subsequently, action plans must be tailored to individual cities and countries at large.

Likewise, the assessment of mitigation practices must also be tailored to understanding barriers to carry out specialized prevention in order to determine target areas for education in the respective cities and countries. It is also important to assess how commuters in a specific area respond to the adverse effects of commuting to work and exposure to traffic pollutants daily. It is vital to assess the level of preventive measures carried out by commuters as well as the types of preventive measures undertaken and the barriers to their use. Such information varies among cities across Asia as well as in Western countries and may be influenced by various factors such as culture, religion, and climate, as well as policy and governance. Identifying the specific health impact of air pollution and level of mitigation measures taken provides an important basis for customized environmental governance by governments of the respective countries.

There is also a dire need to investigate ways to improve upon the measurement of ambient air quality, provide accurate air quality data, and effectively inform the public when ambient air quality is at a dangerous level. Coupled with that, publicly available air quality data can support communication efforts so that people can act to protect themselves against exposure. Furthermore, an informed public can also help to advocate for prevention initiatives such as a reduction in the use of private vehicles to decrease traffic volume during peak-period traffic. As the health effects of air pollution can be reduced via improved understanding and subsequent proper self-preventive measures, a study to identify knowledge gaps and barriers to reducing exposure to traffic-related air pollution during commuting should be carried out to identify intervention strategies, especially for the susceptible population of public transport commuters.
