**Acknowledgements**

**3. Directions for future research**

48 Air Pollution - Monitoring, Quantification and Removal of Gases and Particles

most rapidly developing region.

countries.

commuters.

It is globally recognized that battling traffic congestion, spending a long time commuting, and exposure to atmospheric pollutants during the daily commute result in serious adverse effects on the health and general well-being of commuters. There is a paucity of epidemiological studies regarding the adverse health impacts of atmospheric air pollution, which is worsened by traffic-related air pollution in rapidly developing cities. Although commuting undeniably has a significant impact on public health outcomes, in the Asian region in particular, little empirical evidence has documented the adverse health effects associated with commuting. More research, especially in the form of longitudinal studies, is critically needed to provide insights into the population health impact of traffic-related air pollution in Asia, the world's

Given the many factors such as vehicles, fuel type, topography, meteorological conditions, and a complex array of health determinants such as social, behavioral, and lifestyle factors that may influence the degree of atmospheric pollution and its subsequent impact on human health, emphasis is warranted across all countries on tailoring their health impact assessments according to the specific needs of the affected populations within cities. Measuring local specific health outcomes associated with using public transport would enable specific tailored monitoring and evaluation of and accountability for the health of the relevant population. Subsequently, action plans must be tailored to individual cities and countries at large. Likewise, the assessment of mitigation practices must also be tailored to understanding barriers to carry out specialized prevention in order to determine target areas for education in the respective cities and countries. It is also important to assess how commuters in a specific area respond to the adverse effects of commuting to work and exposure to traffic pollutants daily. It is vital to assess the level of preventive measures carried out by commuters as well as the types of preventive measures undertaken and the barriers to their use. Such information varies among cities across Asia as well as in Western countries and may be influenced by various factors such as culture, religion, and climate, as well as policy and governance. Identifying the specific health impact of air pollution and level of mitigation measures taken provides an important basis for customized environmental governance by governments of the respective

There is also a dire need to investigate ways to improve upon the measurement of ambient air quality, provide accurate air quality data, and effectively inform the public when ambient air quality is at a dangerous level. Coupled with that, publicly available air quality data can support communication efforts so that people can act to protect themselves against exposure. Furthermore, an informed public can also help to advocate for prevention initiatives such as a reduction in the use of private vehicles to decrease traffic volume during peak-period traffic. As the health effects of air pollution can be reduced via improved understanding and subsequent proper self-preventive measures, a study to identify knowledge gaps and barriers to reducing exposure to traffic-related air pollution during commuting should be carried out to identify intervention strategies, especially for the susceptible population of public transport The study was funded by Grand Challenge-SUS (Sustainability Science) Grants GC002C-15SUS and GC002A-15SUS.
