**Conflict of interest**

The authors have no conflict of interest.

*Prebiotics, Probiotics, and Bacterial Infections DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.89052*

*Prebiotics and Probiotics - Potential Benefits in Nutrition and Health*

infectivity [126–129].

**6. Future works and perspectives**

power to clearly answer the question at hand.

The authors have no conflict of interest.

**Acknowledgements**

2030-42000-049-00D.

**Conflict of interest**

on STEC but the effects were dependent on the strain(s) used as reviewed in [126]. Additionally, recombinant receptor mimics have been targeted against STEC [98]. In the three studies that mimicked human digestive conditions, *S. cerevisiae* CNCM I-3856 was implicated in having antagonistic effects on STEC including downregulating Stx expression and how the resident microbiota regulates

Though there have been many successful and safe uses of probiotics for treatment of multiple conditions, there have been reported side effects linked to their usage especially in vulnerable populations [130]. As reviewed in [131], there has been movement toward using extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from probiotic strains (both Gram-negative and Gram-positive) to deliver the same beneficial effects as from using the probiotic strains themselves. There are many different pathways that EVs utilize including bacteria-bacteria communication, affecting host microbial interactions, host immune system, increasing tight junction function,

It has been shown that the development of gastrointestinal disease is due to an imbalance in the host response (physical, commensal microbiota, adaptive/innate immune systems) to bacterial infections. There has been an increasing accumulation of evidence (*in vitro*, *in silico*, and some *in vivo*) supporting the key role that the resident microbiota in the gut plays in mitigating bacterial infections as well as metabolic and physical diseases. There has been development of novel therapies all designed to replace/regenerate the lost beneficial commensal strains in a variety of diseases such as IBS, IBD, acute gastroenteritis, NEC, RCDI, etc. There has been tremendous success in the treatment of RCDI, IBS, and IBD using FMT therapy. However, it is still unclear from all the evidence that giving probiotics and/or prebiotics will mitigate all gastrointestinal diseases [13]. The beneficial effects of a probiotic(s)/prebiotic mixture is utterly dependent on many factors including: time of dosage in relation to disease, probiotic strains used, prebiotics given, dosage, time of treatment, pre, post, and the pre-existing health and/or the microbiota of the host. Additionally, the clinical trials should also be developed with statistical

This work was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture,

Agricultural Research Service, National Program project NP108, CRIS

and decreasing inflammatory responses from TLR signaling [131].

**106**
