**6. Conclusion**

MSCs are excellent candidates for therapeutic use as cellular therapies can potentially revolutionize the current pharmaceutical landscape. Emerging data suggests that MSCs have an immunomodulatory function, but thorough understanding of the mechanisms underlying the complex molecular interplay between MSCs and inflammatory responses will be crucial for exploiting MSC-based therapies in therapeutic applications. One important aspect is to delineate functional differences in tissue-specific MSCs isolated from different sources; current ISCT standardization does not include immune-related functional tests or more detailed molecular validation. Based on the evidence of several clinical trials, the safety of this therapy appears clear; however, the efficacy of such cell therapy is largely uncertain. The overwhelming positive results seen in preclinical animal studies have not yet been translated into clinic. In brief, there is still much to learn, explore, and optimize with regard to the interactions of MSCs in human pathological conditions. In the near future, based on current development and results, MSCs are expected to hold tremendous potential to achieve clinical relevance in regenerative therapy.
