**Author details**

Suman Kapur\* and Anuradha Pal Birla Institute of Technology and Science (BITS Pilani), Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

\*Address all correspondence to: skapur@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**95**

*Immune Cell Activation: Stimulation, Costimulation, and Regulation of Cellular Activation*

Advances in Experimental Medicine and

[9] Bryant HU, Bernton EW, Holaday JW. Immunosuppressive effects of chronic morphine treatment in mice. Life Sciences. 1987;**41**(14):1731-1738

[10] Lefkowitz SS, Chiang CY. Effects of certain abused drugs on hemolysin

[11] Güngör M et al. Effect of chronic administration of morphine on primary immune response in mice. Experientia.

[12] Tubaro E, Borelli G, Croce C, Cavallo G, Santiangeli C. Effect of morphine on resistance to infection. The Journal of Infectious Diseases.

[13] Chao CC, Sharp BM, Pomeroy C, Filice GA, Peterson PK. Lethality of morphine in mice infected with *Toxoplasma gondii*. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1990;**252**(2):605-609

[14] Fecho K, Manning EL, Maixner W, Schmitt CP. Effects of carrageenan and morphine on acute inflammation and pain in Lewis and Fischer rats. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity.

[15] Novick DM, Ochshorn M, Ghali V, Croxson TS, Mercer WD, Chiorazzi N, et al. Natural killer cell activity and lymphocyte subsets in parenteral heroin abusers and long-term methadone maintenance patients. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1989;**250**(2):606-610

[16] Taub DD, Eisenstein TK, Geller EB, Adler MW, Rogers TJ. Immunomodulatory activity of mu- and kappa-selective opioid agonists. Proceedings of the National

forming cells. Life Sciences. 1975;**17**(12):1763-1767

1980;**36**(11):1309-1310

1983;**148**(4):656-666

2007;**21**(1):68-78

Biology. 1996;**402**:35-42

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81568*

[1] Janeway CA Jr, Travers P, Walport M, et al. Receptors of the innate immune system. In: Immuno-biology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th ed. New York: Garland Science; 2001. Available from: http://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/books /NBK27129/

[2] Cooper MD, Peterson RD, Good RA. Delineation of the thymic and bursal lymphoid systems in the chicken.

[3] Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Chapter 24: The adaptive immune system. In: Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th ed. New York: Garland Science; 2002. Available from: http://www.ncbi.

[4] Janković BD, Marić D. Enkephalins and immunity. I: In vivo suppression and potentiation of humoral immune response. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1987;**496**:115-125

[5] Wang J, Roderick Barke A, Sabita R.

Transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of interleukin-2 Gene in activated T cells by morphine. The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[6] Vaswani M, Desai NG. HIV infection and high-risk behaviors in opioid dependent patients: The Indian context. Addictive Behaviors.

[7] Sabita R, Jana N, Santanu B, Richard C, Subhas D, Raini D, et al. Opioid drug abuse and modulation of immune function: Consequences in the susceptibility to opportunistic infections. Journal of NeuroImmune Pharmacology. 2011;**6**(4):442-465

[8] Chang SL, Moldow RL, House SD, Zadina JE. Morphine affects the brain-immune axis by modulating an interleukin-1 beta dependent pathway.

2007;**282**:7164-7171

2004;**29**(8):1699-1705

nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21070/

Nature. 1965;**205**:143-146

**References**

*Immune Cell Activation: Stimulation, Costimulation, and Regulation of Cellular Activation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81568*
