**5. Food security**

*Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development*

**+ Persons above 18 (person/hours)**

Paid work 46.3 41.5 46.3 39.5 Getting to the work place 5.3 4.5 4.0 3.2 Work on the private land and housekeeping 14.1 13.6 16.0 17.3 Studying, in-service training, and self-education 34.5 31.5 38.3 32.5 Getting to the place of studying 4.6 4.4 4.6 3.4 Food shopping 3.3 4.4 2.6 3.4 Nonfood shopping 2.5 2.5 3.2 2.3 Attending consumer service houses 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.4 Cooking and dishwashing 9.5 16.2 9.0 17.0 Repair the housekeeping items 4.3 5.1 4.3 5.4 Laundry, ironing, clothes repairing 2.4 3.5 2.6 4.3 Childcare (children under 12) live in family 9.1 16.1 7.4 12.6 Caring for the elderly who need help 5.2 6.5 6.1 8.0 Attending museums, cinemas, concert, etc. 3.2 3.1 3.0 2.5 Watching TV 19.3 17.2 20.0 17.5 Attending fitness centers and sport clubs 2.4 2.4 1.6 1.5 Sleep 55.4 55.3 54.5 54.3 Free time 22.5 20.6 23.2 20.5

**Urban area Rural area Men Women Men Women**

are unpaid and waste women's time which she could spend for training and paid work. The more time women spend for unpaid work, the fewer opportunities she

*The time budget of all members of households during 7 days of the week according to the type of activity, the* 

*category of population, and gender in 2006 (according to the data of simultaneous research).*

**Table 1** shows that women spend 1.3 hours more than men working on the private land and doing housekeeping that equals 17.3 h/week. Actually this figure is higher because according to observation most rural women estimate their work on household plots as leisure. All respondents in Karaganda oblast answered they have a high burden in household and run around in circles between 6 A.M. and 12 P.M. Mentality of the society and heavy burden in the household set the restrictions for women, so they have no time, power, and energy for paid work. Low revenues do not allow family to mechanize housework and mitigate women's burden [18]. She was exploring interrelations between well-being and work intensity, pointing out that the lower the welfare of the household, the higher time and labor intensity. Unfortunately, statistic agency's time use survey does not consider activities done simultaneously. Respondents registered their time on sequentially performed jobs during a week in chronological sequence. However, for example, in rural areas, women usually cook, work in the household plots, and care for children simultaneously [18]. She points out that "intensification of work … by simultaneously performing two or more activities that require considerable energy or concentration is a qualitative dimension of time use that affects the well-being of the worker as well

**120**

has to increase income.

**Table 1.**

as the household" [18].

There are numerous definitions of food security in the scientific literature, but they are all about "physical, social and economic access to all people at all times to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" [41]. Food independence, as a characteristic of food security, is critical for Kazakhstan. For a country with a fair number of natural resources, in order to provide the expanded reproduction of agricultural sector, domestic food production should be more than 80% of the country's food consumption [42]. When the country is specialized in certain types of food, its export should provide foreign trade surplus on food [42]. One of the main criteria of the country's food independence is connected with the financial ability to import the missing food and satisfy the demand of its population [42]. In Kazakhstan, "the most of domestic agro-food products were sold unprocessed, and higher quality processed foods were imported" [43]. In 2014 Kazakhstan had a positive foreign trade balance on agricultural products in the amount of US \$198,7 million and the negative foreign trade balance on food products US \$1782,2 million [42]. Kazakhstan is dependent from food import [44].

In 2017, food self-sufficiency, as a level of domestic agroproduction to the consumption standards, on meat and meat-based products was 62%; on milk 78%; on poultry meat 59%; and on fruits and berries 49%. The positive situation is with the self-sufficiency on grain 161% and potato 195% [44]. When calculating the level of food self-sufficiency, it would be more accurate data if loss of agricultural products will be considered. 30% of agricultural products do not reach consumers due to lack of storage conditions and imperfect economic relations between agribusiness companies and between producers, processors, and trade organizations [42, 45, 46]. So, we can conclude that domestic food supply is likely to be lower than official data. Kazakhstan is dependent from import on basic food stuffs. The more the import of food, the higher extent of dependence the country has from importers and market fluctuations and higher threat for the country's food security [47].

Nowadays, a significant part of the population's consumption of the country, especially in rural areas, consists of food produced on household plots and small peasant farms. Household plots calculated 1643.3 thousand units in 2016, and they produced 70% of potato; 50% of vegetables; 88% of milk; 76% of meat; 36% of eggs; and 68% of wool [23]. It is obvious that these farms are strategically important for food security of the country. They produce around half of the gross product. Women are the main economic agents in small peasant enterprises and household plots; therefore, they are important for food security of the country. However, household plots do not ensure women with high income. According to 2015 interview data on Karaganda oblast, the majority of respondents (90%)

answered that private allotments bring unstable and humble income. Women were undecided to name specific income data, and only 30% of them answered they had about 60,000–70,000 KZT/month from the sale of agricultural products at the time of vegetable and berry harvest. Perishables such as milk and cottage cheese require certain storage conditions or immediate sale. 60% of respondents have no transport to deliver products to the city market. Resellers offer cut prices. The majority of respondents (80%) noted that they often have no funds to purchase fertilizers, high-grade feed for livestock, and agrotechnics. Thus, according to the survey, low incomes from private farms and low productivity of private farms, along with weather conditions and time intensity, are associated with financial problems that aggravate purchase of quality fertilizers, feeds and necessary farming equipment, as well as problems in sales of products, due to undeveloped rural infrastructure and lack of transport.

Regarding expenses, 90% of respondents said that about 60% of the total household income is spent on food, the rest on clothing and footwear. 10% of respondents spend all their income to educate their children at the universities. 80% of women visit free medical institutions or self-medicate, and only 20% of them could afford paid medical services, since they were forced to do so due to medical prescriptions. Proper social support for women and infrastructure development could mitigate women's unpaid work in this sector and promote effective producing, harvesting, processing, and marketing of agricultural products and mitigate constraints to food security.

Economic access to food is assessed by the population's purchasing power and well-being [48]. According to official data, in the past several years, due to economic growth, population's welfare has improved. In 2014, the share of poor people was 2.8% in contrast with 6.5% in 2010 and 34.6% in 1996 [28]. In 2017, only 0.1% of population had earnings lower than subsistence minimum according to official data [3]. However, the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan estimates the poverty line as 50% of the subsistence minimum (before January 1, 2018, it was calculated as a 40% of subsistence minimum). The Government of Kazakhstan uses this indicator to provide social assistance for poor people. The subsistence minimum in Kazakhstan is similar to the minimum consumer's basket cost, and in 2018 it equals to 28,284 KZT or \$86, from which 60%, namely, \$52 or 14,675 KZT, is the food basket. In 2011, the poverty line is 6243.6 KZT (\$42) and in 2018 it is 14,142 KZT (\$34). We can see that if in tenge this indicator grows, the dollar one falls. The quantity of goods and services that can be purchased for this amount is reduced. Quality processed food, medicines, clothing, and footwear are mainly imported, and their prices are set in accordance with the dollar exchange rate. In the past 8 years, the tenge has depreciated by almost 65%. Prices for local food products are also increasing, as production costs are rising: imported equipment, raw materials, vaccines, and fertilizers are used to produce them. Prices for gasoline, electricity, and the cost of a pitch in a market place are also increased. Thus, quality food products that are vital to a human being, such as fish, nuts, meat, olive oil, fruit, etc., are becoming less accessible to most of the population. The real purchasing power of population is falling. \$86 (subsistence minimum in Kazakhstan) is not enough to cover vital human needs with consideration of the average family size which is 3.5 persons [21], while prices of utilities, energy, and medical services are increasing. Moreover, it is necessary to apply international standards to calculate the poverty line. Poverty line should be equal to subsistence minimum to guarantee proper social support for poor people. In 2015, poverty in rural areas was 3.6 times higher than in urban areas [23], and 45% of all unemployed reside in rural areas.

**123**

household.

resided in rural areas [3].

deficiency of iron [49].

*Food Security in Kazakhstan: Do Gender Inequalities Affect?*

Women employed in agriculture have a lowest wage both compared to women

On top of that, a woman's salary is 68% of the man's salary. Women have to choose low-paid jobs due to their responsibilities in terms of family and homework, limited access to retraining, and inability to work overtime on the paid job. Therefore, women are less suitable labor for employers. In 2017, the share of unemployed women was 53.6% of all unemployed, and 43% of all unemployed women

Over the last decade, according to the official data, the education and health expenditures have increased. However, these measures do not contribute to the welfare of the population due to inflation, which was 7% in 2017. Moreover, considerable assets have been spent to the elite educational institutions and hospital construction in Astana and Almaty cities. These elite schools, universities, and hospitals provide very expensive services that are unavailable for the majority of the population [53]. Last year's prices of quality medical services, utilities, electricity, and food have increased, and most of the public preschools have been closed. This has limited women's ability to find a paid work and has increased their unpaid work in household, thus increasing women's time pressure. The higher prices for food, the lower the consumption of quality food, which is usually more expensive. In Kazakhstan the consumption of meat, fish, and fruits has decreased. "Underconsumption of vital foods has result in the deterioration of immunity and health" [16]. Almost 40% of women in Kazakhstan suffer from anemia due to

One of the criteria of food security is the food quality. According to veterinary statistics, 20% of livestock in the country are infected by brucellosis or are located in areas where brucellosis was identified [54]. In 2012, 180 hearts of severe infectious diseases were registered. As a result, only less than 25% of cattle are in the regions where export is permitted [55]. At the interview with a professor from Agrarian University, he said the vaccines for brucellosis currently used in Kazakhstan are not effective in preventing brucellosis in our country and do not work against species of Brucella prevalent in our country. The professor proposed

of other economic sectors and to men of all sectors [49]. Earnings of 4.4% of the rural population are lower than the subsistence minimum [3]. Furthermore, counted subsistence minimum is inadequate for the upper middle-income country [50]. Moreover, in 2017, 23% of the working-age population was self-employed, and 62.4% of all self-employed people reside in rural areas [3]. 44% of all selfemployed in agriculture are women [3]. Although there is not a single, unified definition of the "self-employment" notion in the current legislation of Kazakhstan, usually in practice self-employed people are more vulnerable in terms of stable incomes, social security, work experience records, and contributions to pension fund. They have a limited access to bank loans. So self-employed rural women are more vulnerable than wage-employed people in terms of incomes, position on the labor market, and access to quality food. The same situation is with informal employment. Around 70% of informal employees are engaged in agriculture [51]. Rutkowski (in Ref. [51]) pointed out that informal jobs are associated with low skills and productivity. Women prefer informal activity because working in the formal sector has a high cost including high taxes and document registration due to high bureaucracy. Women engaged in activities that deal with informal self-employment "encounter borrowing constraints, preventing their entry into the formal sectors" [52]. According to interview data in Karaganda oblast, 70% of women could not find decent jobs and have to work in their households only. 30% of respondents answered they do not want to work for low wages on low-skilled jobs outside the

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90339*

#### *Food Security in Kazakhstan: Do Gender Inequalities Affect? DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90339*

*Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development*

lack of transport.

security.

answered that private allotments bring unstable and humble income. Women were undecided to name specific income data, and only 30% of them answered they had about 60,000–70,000 KZT/month from the sale of agricultural products at the time of vegetable and berry harvest. Perishables such as milk and cottage cheese require certain storage conditions or immediate sale. 60% of respondents have no transport to deliver products to the city market. Resellers offer cut prices. The majority of respondents (80%) noted that they often have no funds to purchase fertilizers, high-grade feed for livestock, and agrotechnics. Thus, according to the survey, low incomes from private farms and low productivity of private farms, along with weather conditions and time intensity, are associated with financial problems that aggravate purchase of quality fertilizers, feeds and necessary farming equipment, as well as problems in sales of products, due to undeveloped rural infrastructure and

Regarding expenses, 90% of respondents said that about 60% of the total household income is spent on food, the rest on clothing and footwear. 10% of respondents spend all their income to educate their children at the universities. 80% of women visit free medical institutions or self-medicate, and only 20% of them could afford paid medical services, since they were forced to do so due to medical prescriptions. Proper social support for women and infrastructure development could mitigate women's unpaid work in this sector and promote effective producing, harvesting, processing, and marketing of agricultural products and mitigate constraints to food

Economic access to food is assessed by the population's purchasing power and well-being [48]. According to official data, in the past several years, due to economic growth, population's welfare has improved. In 2014, the share of poor people was 2.8% in contrast with 6.5% in 2010 and 34.6% in 1996 [28]. In 2017, only 0.1% of population had earnings lower than subsistence minimum according to official data [3]. However, the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan estimates the poverty line as 50% of the subsistence minimum (before January 1, 2018, it was calculated as a 40% of subsistence minimum). The Government of Kazakhstan uses this indicator to provide social assistance for poor people. The subsistence minimum in Kazakhstan is similar to the minimum consumer's basket cost, and in 2018 it equals to 28,284 KZT or \$86, from which 60%, namely, \$52 or 14,675 KZT, is the food basket. In 2011, the poverty line is 6243.6 KZT (\$42) and in 2018 it is 14,142 KZT (\$34). We can see that if in tenge this indicator grows, the dollar one falls. The quantity of goods and services that can be purchased for this amount is reduced. Quality processed food, medicines, clothing, and footwear are mainly imported, and their prices are set in accordance with the dollar exchange rate. In the past 8 years, the tenge has depreciated by almost 65%. Prices for local food products are also increasing, as production costs are rising: imported equipment, raw materials, vaccines, and fertilizers are used to produce them. Prices for gasoline, electricity, and the cost of a pitch in a market place are also increased. Thus, quality food products that are vital to a human being, such as fish, nuts, meat, olive oil, fruit, etc., are becoming less accessible to most of the population. The real purchasing power of population is falling. \$86 (subsistence minimum in Kazakhstan) is not enough to cover vital human needs with consideration of the average family size which is 3.5 persons [21], while prices of utilities, energy, and medical services are increasing. Moreover, it is necessary to apply international standards to calculate the poverty line. Poverty line should be equal to subsistence minimum to guarantee proper social support for poor people. In 2015, poverty in rural areas was 3.6 times higher than in urban areas [23], and 45% of all

**122**

unemployed reside in rural areas.

Women employed in agriculture have a lowest wage both compared to women of other economic sectors and to men of all sectors [49]. Earnings of 4.4% of the rural population are lower than the subsistence minimum [3]. Furthermore, counted subsistence minimum is inadequate for the upper middle-income country [50]. Moreover, in 2017, 23% of the working-age population was self-employed, and 62.4% of all self-employed people reside in rural areas [3]. 44% of all selfemployed in agriculture are women [3]. Although there is not a single, unified definition of the "self-employment" notion in the current legislation of Kazakhstan, usually in practice self-employed people are more vulnerable in terms of stable incomes, social security, work experience records, and contributions to pension fund. They have a limited access to bank loans. So self-employed rural women are more vulnerable than wage-employed people in terms of incomes, position on the labor market, and access to quality food. The same situation is with informal employment. Around 70% of informal employees are engaged in agriculture [51]. Rutkowski (in Ref. [51]) pointed out that informal jobs are associated with low skills and productivity. Women prefer informal activity because working in the formal sector has a high cost including high taxes and document registration due to high bureaucracy. Women engaged in activities that deal with informal self-employment "encounter borrowing constraints, preventing their entry into the formal sectors" [52]. According to interview data in Karaganda oblast, 70% of women could not find decent jobs and have to work in their households only. 30% of respondents answered they do not want to work for low wages on low-skilled jobs outside the household.

On top of that, a woman's salary is 68% of the man's salary. Women have to choose low-paid jobs due to their responsibilities in terms of family and homework, limited access to retraining, and inability to work overtime on the paid job. Therefore, women are less suitable labor for employers. In 2017, the share of unemployed women was 53.6% of all unemployed, and 43% of all unemployed women resided in rural areas [3].

Over the last decade, according to the official data, the education and health expenditures have increased. However, these measures do not contribute to the welfare of the population due to inflation, which was 7% in 2017. Moreover, considerable assets have been spent to the elite educational institutions and hospital construction in Astana and Almaty cities. These elite schools, universities, and hospitals provide very expensive services that are unavailable for the majority of the population [53]. Last year's prices of quality medical services, utilities, electricity, and food have increased, and most of the public preschools have been closed. This has limited women's ability to find a paid work and has increased their unpaid work in household, thus increasing women's time pressure. The higher prices for food, the lower the consumption of quality food, which is usually more expensive. In Kazakhstan the consumption of meat, fish, and fruits has decreased. "Underconsumption of vital foods has result in the deterioration of immunity and health" [16]. Almost 40% of women in Kazakhstan suffer from anemia due to deficiency of iron [49].

One of the criteria of food security is the food quality. According to veterinary statistics, 20% of livestock in the country are infected by brucellosis or are located in areas where brucellosis was identified [54]. In 2012, 180 hearts of severe infectious diseases were registered. As a result, only less than 25% of cattle are in the regions where export is permitted [55]. At the interview with a professor from Agrarian University, he said the vaccines for brucellosis currently used in Kazakhstan are not effective in preventing brucellosis in our country and do not work against species of Brucella prevalent in our country. The professor proposed

his own vaccine against Brucella that he has developed. Funding is required for further elaboration, testing, and implementation into production of new vaccines. Unfortunately, the Kazakhstani Ministry of Agriculture has not devoted funding for the development of his vaccine. Possibly the Kazakhstani Ministry of Agriculture has own benefits from buying ineffective vaccines. The vaccines, and not only vaccines for brucellosis, often are kept under conditions which do not meet the standards of vaccine storage.<sup>2</sup>

Moreover, the Ministry of Agriculture provides only diagnostic of disease on a cost-free basis, and farmers have to pay themselves for vaccines. The predominance of small-scale production in agriculture based on individual household plots and small farmers and the need for farmers and peasants to pay themselves for vaccination of animals also caused spreading of brucellosis. Farmers and peasants are not interested in spending money on vaccines due to low incomes. 80% of human diseases come from livestock and most livestock infections originate from poor countries. Women, as main economic agents who process meat and milk, are an at-risk group who can be infected by livestock diseases. Most of the domestic and imported food contains harmful substances [47, 56, 57]. According to the Sanitary-Epidemiological Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan, around 70% of harmful substances enter into the human body with food [47]. Organic products are very expensive and inaccessible for the most of population. Two-thirds of the rural population has no access to safe water supply due to the insufficient technical condition of the existing water supply systems [58]. Very often the food import in Kazakhstan deals with import of low-quality cheap food from China. According to Kaigorodtsev (in Ref. [47]), there is a threat of "biological degradation of the population in terms of deterioration of the nutrition structure" [47]. "Governance focuses mostly on output, quantity, but not on the issues of effective allocation of resources, quality of product or social issues" [43].

Despite all the challenges, Kazakhstani people had rich qualities; "they recognized martial prowess, hospitality, respect for elders, love for children, and ready aid to kinsmen as virtues" [24]. According to Kazakh national traditions, children will maintain their old parents, more rich relatives help the poor ones, and men have full responsibility for the family's well-being. Maybe these national characteristics will help poor households and women to survive also in the future.

### **6. Conclusions**

As an agricultural country, Kazakhstan should prioritize the agricultural growth in order to provide food security and mitigate poverty. For a country with a large reserve of natural resources and largest employment share in agriculture, food self-sufficiency is an important prerequisite of food security. Literature review and data analysis show that in spite of the growth in total GDP and budget increase for the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Kazakhstan is still food insecure and has the underdeveloped agriculture. Kazakhstan is dependent from food import. Fieldwork data analysis has determined that economic access to safe and nutritious food is limited by low purchasing power and well-being of whole rural population, but women are relatively worse off than men.

The empirical analysis revealed that the access of rural women to finance is limited by the high cost of finance, which is the result of the high interest rate, high risks for banks in lending of agriculture, and high transaction costs. It primarily

**125**

*Food Security in Kazakhstan: Do Gender Inequalities Affect?*

increases women's business costs and work burden.

gender discrimination affects the national food security.

equality, and security of everyone.

**Acknowledgements**

and moral support.

affected the small enterprises and women who can handle only small business. Deficiency of skills and training opportunities; unpaid household work; high time and work intensity; low access to land, equipment, and quality fertilizers; and mentality of the society on "women's work" demonstrate gender inequality in Kazakhstan's agriculture sector which constrain agricultural growth and the

Cultivation of household land plots became a main survival strategy of a family, in terms of individual consumption of the products in the household and in terms of income from the sale of the surplus product in the markets. Unfortunately, this sector cannot provide women with the sufficient income due to low productivity and lack of resources to buy fertilizers, livestock feed, and agricultural equipment. Most women have not any market experience and often face challenges in selling their products. Such a situation becomes keener due to bad infrastructure which

This paper calls the attention of Kazakhstan's policy makers to the importance of gender mainstreaming in food security programs; women's role in economy; and unpaid labor in household. Proper state support for women and infrastructure development is needed to mitigate women's unpaid work and free up time for further training and for decent paid work in the formal sector. It could promote effective producing, harvesting, processing, and marketing of agricultural products and mitigate constraints to food security provision. This paper provides analytical examination of interaction of gender equality and food security and concludes that

Kazakhstan has elaborated and signed a number of documents on gender equality. However, there is a gap between the creation of legislative documents and their actual implementation. Nowadays the major question is how the declared tasks should be implemented. Gender mainstreaming into food security is about not just women's issues in agriculture but also poverty, unequal access to resources, unequal distribution of income, as well as wealth and corruption. All human beings, especially decision-makers, shall be "responsible for results. Personal characteristics of employees (including potential negative demonstrations such as personal ambitions, incompetence", and preference to personal interests) "may differently affect public interests" [9]. "The rate of divergence between the set objective and its actual implementation is the measure of personal" and moral responsibility of each member of the society [9]. This gap "may affect the quality of outcomes, in our case resulting in gender inequality remaining" [9]. Spiritual and moral crisis is the main "cause of all other forms of global crisis" including economic, ecological, and social crises [59] and corruption. To overcome the spiritual and moral crisis, the humanization of people is needed and changing the outlook of people and their attitude to other people and the environment. Efforts to achieve gender equality must include personal spiritual revival and promotion of a truly civilized society, where absolute values and norms of life are freedom,

I would like to express my special thanks to adjunct professor of the University of Eastern Finland Heimo Mikkola for the scientific guidance, technical assistance,

I am very grateful to the Fulbright Visiting Scholar Program for financial support and for the great opportunity to conduct research and to get consultations at

the American University and World Bank in Washington, DC.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90339*

national food security.

<sup>2</sup> Unpublished anonymous interview with a professor of Kazakh National Agrarian University on food security issues, 2013

#### *Food Security in Kazakhstan: Do Gender Inequalities Affect? DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.90339*

*Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development*

resources, quality of product or social issues" [43].

the standards of vaccine storage.<sup>2</sup>

his own vaccine against Brucella that he has developed. Funding is required for further elaboration, testing, and implementation into production of new vaccines. Unfortunately, the Kazakhstani Ministry of Agriculture has not devoted funding for the development of his vaccine. Possibly the Kazakhstani Ministry of Agriculture has own benefits from buying ineffective vaccines. The vaccines, and not only vaccines for brucellosis, often are kept under conditions which do not meet

Moreover, the Ministry of Agriculture provides only diagnostic of disease on a cost-free basis, and farmers have to pay themselves for vaccines. The predominance of small-scale production in agriculture based on individual household plots and small farmers and the need for farmers and peasants to pay themselves for vaccination of animals also caused spreading of brucellosis. Farmers and peasants are not interested in spending money on vaccines due to low incomes. 80% of human diseases come from livestock and most livestock infections originate from poor countries. Women, as main economic agents who process meat and milk, are an at-risk group who can be infected by livestock diseases. Most of the domestic and imported food contains harmful substances [47, 56, 57]. According to the Sanitary-Epidemiological Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan, around 70% of harmful substances enter into the human body with food [47]. Organic products are very expensive and inaccessible for the most of population. Two-thirds of the rural population has no access to safe water supply due to the insufficient technical condition of the existing water supply systems [58]. Very often the food import in Kazakhstan deals with import of low-quality cheap food from China. According to Kaigorodtsev (in Ref. [47]), there is a threat of "biological degradation of the population in terms of deterioration of the nutrition structure" [47]. "Governance focuses mostly on output, quantity, but not on the issues of effective allocation of

Despite all the challenges, Kazakhstani people had rich qualities; "they recognized martial prowess, hospitality, respect for elders, love for children, and ready aid to kinsmen as virtues" [24]. According to Kazakh national traditions, children will maintain their old parents, more rich relatives help the poor ones, and men have full responsibility for the family's well-being. Maybe these national character-

As an agricultural country, Kazakhstan should prioritize the agricultural growth in order to provide food security and mitigate poverty. For a country with a large reserve of natural resources and largest employment share in agriculture, food self-sufficiency is an important prerequisite of food security. Literature review and data analysis show that in spite of the growth in total GDP and budget increase for the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Kazakhstan is still food insecure and has the underdeveloped agriculture. Kazakhstan is dependent from food import. Fieldwork data analysis has determined that economic access to safe and nutritious food is limited by low purchasing power and well-being of whole

The empirical analysis revealed that the access of rural women to finance is limited by the high cost of finance, which is the result of the high interest rate, high risks for banks in lending of agriculture, and high transaction costs. It primarily

<sup>2</sup> Unpublished anonymous interview with a professor of Kazakh National Agrarian University on food

istics will help poor households and women to survive also in the future.

rural population, but women are relatively worse off than men.

**124**

security issues, 2013

**6. Conclusions**

affected the small enterprises and women who can handle only small business. Deficiency of skills and training opportunities; unpaid household work; high time and work intensity; low access to land, equipment, and quality fertilizers; and mentality of the society on "women's work" demonstrate gender inequality in Kazakhstan's agriculture sector which constrain agricultural growth and the national food security.

Cultivation of household land plots became a main survival strategy of a family, in terms of individual consumption of the products in the household and in terms of income from the sale of the surplus product in the markets. Unfortunately, this sector cannot provide women with the sufficient income due to low productivity and lack of resources to buy fertilizers, livestock feed, and agricultural equipment. Most women have not any market experience and often face challenges in selling their products. Such a situation becomes keener due to bad infrastructure which increases women's business costs and work burden.

This paper calls the attention of Kazakhstan's policy makers to the importance of gender mainstreaming in food security programs; women's role in economy; and unpaid labor in household. Proper state support for women and infrastructure development is needed to mitigate women's unpaid work and free up time for further training and for decent paid work in the formal sector. It could promote effective producing, harvesting, processing, and marketing of agricultural products and mitigate constraints to food security provision. This paper provides analytical examination of interaction of gender equality and food security and concludes that gender discrimination affects the national food security.

Kazakhstan has elaborated and signed a number of documents on gender equality. However, there is a gap between the creation of legislative documents and their actual implementation. Nowadays the major question is how the declared tasks should be implemented. Gender mainstreaming into food security is about not just women's issues in agriculture but also poverty, unequal access to resources, unequal distribution of income, as well as wealth and corruption. All human beings, especially decision-makers, shall be "responsible for results. Personal characteristics of employees (including potential negative demonstrations such as personal ambitions, incompetence", and preference to personal interests) "may differently affect public interests" [9]. "The rate of divergence between the set objective and its actual implementation is the measure of personal" and moral responsibility of each member of the society [9]. This gap "may affect the quality of outcomes, in our case resulting in gender inequality remaining" [9]. Spiritual and moral crisis is the main "cause of all other forms of global crisis" including economic, ecological, and social crises [59] and corruption. To overcome the spiritual and moral crisis, the humanization of people is needed and changing the outlook of people and their attitude to other people and the environment. Efforts to achieve gender equality must include personal spiritual revival and promotion of a truly civilized society, where absolute values and norms of life are freedom, equality, and security of everyone.
