**Abstract**

In many parts of the world, the social work profession has continued to become a magnet for students from various backgrounds. This field has attracted local and international students with prior expertise in other disciplines, including but not limited to, sociology, psychology, criminal justice, education, and law. This chapter, among other things, presents an overview of the social work profession in the United States, highlights the uniqueness of this discipline, and explains the rise in enrollment in the twenty-first century. It is hypothesized that the appealability of social work is associated with (a) a quest for social justice, (b) a pragmatic path toward direct practice, (c) a commitment for social services delivery, and (d) a passion for empowerment. Understanding the rationale behind the appealability of the profession is crucial for social work educators to meet the needs of their student body in a world deeply ravaged by contemporary social problems.

**Keywords:** social work, social work education, social problems, social justice, social work practice

### **1. Introduction**

The profession of social work has been in existence across North America since late 1900s [1]. Two reputable organizations oversee the profession of social work in the United States: The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) as governing body with regard to accreditation standards and the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) as professional body in terms of ethical standards. The CSWE was formed in 1952, following the merging of the American Association of Schools of Social Work (AASSW)—formerly the Association of Training Schools for Professional Social Workers—and the National Association of Schools of Social Administration (NASSA). The original mission of the CSWE was to promote and regulate social work education in the US and in Canada [2].

Roughly three decades before the creation of NASW, social workers in the United States organized themselves under the auspices of the National Social Workers' Exchange. By the early 1950s, there were several major social work organizations with national recognition. In 1955, seven of them—American Association of Social Workers, American Association of Psychiatric Social Workers, American Association of Group Workers, Association for the Study of Community Organization, American Association of Medical Social Workers, National Association of School Social Workers and Social Work Research Group—merged

into a single entity: NASW [3]. The newly established organization was purported to further the professional status of social work.

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, the largest percentage of mental health and family services professionals reported having social work degrees [4]. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, social work has become one of the fastest growing community and social service occupations in the United States (US) in the twenty-first century [5]. The US accounted for more than 680,000 employed social workers in 2016. This number is expected to reach 790,000 by 2026 [6]. This chapter focuses on the appealability of the social work profession in the US by proposing to explore the following questions:


To answer these questions, the authors made an unsystematic review of the literature, gleaning information from both published and unpublished sources. Much of the information presented in this chapter originated from peer-reviewed outlets, such as journal articles and books. Yet, the authors also included materials (mainly statistical information) from reputable electronic databases in this conceptual paper.

#### **2. The profession of social work in the United States**

#### **2.1 Scope of education**

According to the CSWE, American colleges and universities offered 518 bachelor's degrees, 255 master's degrees, and 89 doctoral degrees in social work in 2017, serving 127,079 students in the process [7]. This is an overall 75% increase from a decade ago when only 72,309 students sought a social work degree. In fact, based on CSWE's (2008) data, in 2007 the higher education enrollment for social work in the United States (US) reached 30,554 students for baccalaureate programs, 39,508 students for master's programs, and 2247 students for doctoral programs [8]. **Figure 1** below shows the substantial growth in enrollment for the decade 2007–2017. The increase in enrollment was particularly sharp for undergraduate social work education. Compared to the undergraduate and graduate programs, doctoral enrollment (PhD and DSW) underwent a less impressive improvement between 2007 and 2017. Yet, this was still a 43% jump over the decade [7, 8].

Combining undergraduate and graduate education statistics for the 2016–2017 academic year, the authors found that social work remains a predominantly female profession with 86.3% of students, on average, identifying as female [7]. With regard to race, the profession has become more diverse with minority students representing almost half of the student body in 2017 [7]. In terms of age, approximately two-thirds of students enrolled in social work programs across the US during the 2016–2017 academic year were below the age of 40 [7]. It is important to

**81**

*The Appealability of the Social Work Profession in the United States: Possible Explanations*

acknowledge that these demographic proportions only reflect a national picture of the profession in the US. National data may tell a completely different story at the

Farley, Smith, and Boyle defined social work as "an art, a science, and a profession that helps people solve *personal*, *group* (especially family), and *community* problems and attain satisfying *personal*, *group*, and *community* relationship through social work practice" [9]. However, the credibility of social work was under attack soon after its inception. **Table 1** below exhibits 18 criteria or characteristics or a profession proposed by four scholars from various academic backgrounds. Using a six-criteria grid, Flexner found that social work did not meet the conditions for a profession [10]. Flexner based his critique on the failure of social work to take final decision on critical issues (responsibility), define a clear goal (practical purpose), and have educational specializations (curriculum) [11]. Hence, for Flexner, social work is more of a helping profession rather than a profession per se. It is important to mention that the criteria under which Flexner (2015) appraised the profession were selected arbitrarily. Arguably, by stating that "social work is not a profession" based on his de facto criteria, Flexner somehow tarnishes the reputation of the field forever. However, no one would quarrel with the idea that his remarks did more good than harm to the profession. After all, Flexner's remark raised awareness within the social work community on how to improve the profession. In other words, since Flexner's assessment of the social work came at a relatively early stage in the development of the field, this set the stage for the

subnational level, that is, across states, counties, and municipalities.

*Number of social work students in the United States for 2007 and 2017.*

depositaries of the profession to take remedial actions.

**2.2 Validity of the profession**

**Figure 1.**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91671*

*The Appealability of the Social Work Profession in the United States: Possible Explanations DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91671*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Global Social Work - Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections*

to further the professional status of social work.

proposing to explore the following questions:

in the twenty-first century?

**2.1 Scope of education**

growth in enrollment in the past decade?

the United States in the twenty-first century?

**2. The profession of social work in the United States**

Yet, this was still a 43% jump over the decade [7, 8].

into a single entity: NASW [3]. The newly established organization was purported

a.To what extent has social work education in the United States experienced a

b.What explains the uniqueness of the social work profession in the United States

c.What is the rationale behind the appealability of the social work profession in

d.In what ways can social work education in the United States best assess/meet

To answer these questions, the authors made an unsystematic review of the literature, gleaning information from both published and unpublished sources. Much of the information presented in this chapter originated from peer-reviewed outlets, such as journal articles and books. Yet, the authors also included materials (mainly statistical information) from reputable electronic databases in this conceptual paper.

According to the CSWE, American colleges and universities offered 518 bachelor's degrees, 255 master's degrees, and 89 doctoral degrees in social work in 2017, serving 127,079 students in the process [7]. This is an overall 75% increase from a decade ago when only 72,309 students sought a social work degree. In fact, based on CSWE's (2008) data, in 2007 the higher education enrollment for social work in the United States (US) reached 30,554 students for baccalaureate programs, 39,508 students for master's programs, and 2247 students for doctoral programs [8]. **Figure 1** below shows the substantial growth in enrollment for the decade 2007–2017. The increase in enrollment was particularly sharp for undergraduate social work education. Compared to the undergraduate and graduate programs, doctoral enrollment (PhD and DSW) underwent a less impressive improvement between 2007 and 2017.

Combining undergraduate and graduate education statistics for the 2016–2017 academic year, the authors found that social work remains a predominantly female profession with 86.3% of students, on average, identifying as female [7]. With regard to race, the profession has become more diverse with minority students representing almost half of the student body in 2017 [7]. In terms of age, approximately two-thirds of students enrolled in social work programs across the US during the 2016–2017 academic year were below the age of 40 [7]. It is important to

the needs of social work students in the twenty-first century?

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, the largest percentage of mental health and family services professionals reported having social work degrees [4]. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, social work has become one of the fastest growing community and social service occupations in the United States (US) in the twenty-first century [5]. The US accounted for more than 680,000 employed social workers in 2016. This number is expected to reach 790,000 by 2026 [6]. This chapter focuses on the appealability of the social work profession in the US by

**80**

*Number of social work students in the United States for 2007 and 2017.*

acknowledge that these demographic proportions only reflect a national picture of the profession in the US. National data may tell a completely different story at the subnational level, that is, across states, counties, and municipalities.

#### **2.2 Validity of the profession**

Farley, Smith, and Boyle defined social work as "an art, a science, and a profession that helps people solve *personal*, *group* (especially family), and *community* problems and attain satisfying *personal*, *group*, and *community* relationship through social work practice" [9]. However, the credibility of social work was under attack soon after its inception. **Table 1** below exhibits 18 criteria or characteristics or a profession proposed by four scholars from various academic backgrounds.

Using a six-criteria grid, Flexner found that social work did not meet the conditions for a profession [10]. Flexner based his critique on the failure of social work to take final decision on critical issues (responsibility), define a clear goal (practical purpose), and have educational specializations (curriculum) [11]. Hence, for Flexner, social work is more of a helping profession rather than a profession per se. It is important to mention that the criteria under which Flexner (2015) appraised the profession were selected arbitrarily. Arguably, by stating that "social work is not a profession" based on his de facto criteria, Flexner somehow tarnishes the reputation of the field forever. However, no one would quarrel with the idea that his remarks did more good than harm to the profession. After all, Flexner's remark raised awareness within the social work community on how to improve the profession. In other words, since Flexner's assessment of the social work came at a relatively early stage in the development of the field, this set the stage for the depositaries of the profession to take remedial actions.


#### **Table 1.**

*The validity of the social work profession.*

In 1957, Ernest Greenwood, University of California, Berkeley social welfare researcher and professor, launched a significant counterargument to Flexner's claim that "social work is not a profession." In his essay, "Attributes of a Profession," Greenwood stipulated that social work is a profession [12]. The difference between Flexner and Greenwood lies in the criteria of selection upon which the scholars based their respective argument. As exhibited in **Table 1**, Greenwood's framework includes the following criteria: systematic theory, professional authority, community sanction, ethical codes, and culture. The criteria in this framework are fundamentally different from those found in Flexner's model (see Flexner's work as described above [10]).

Although not part of the feud between Flexner and Greenwood, Wickenden and Abbott contributed heavily to the discussion [13, 14]. Common heritage of knowledge and skills, educational institution, professional bodies, public recognition, maintenance and improvement, and confidential relationship between practitioners and clients are criteria suggested by Wickenden [13]. Abbott's notion of *jurisdiction* implies the uniqueness of social work [14]. More consideration will be given to Abbott's sense of professional jurisdiction in the next section.

Today, the field of social work meets the criteria for a profession as expressed in the work of Flexner, Wickenden, Greenwood, and Abbott through:


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*The Appealability of the Social Work Profession in the United States: Possible Explanations*

e. continuing education and professional development (maintenance and

g.the person-in-environment theory (esotericism, systematic theory,

d.the National Social Work Month recognition granted by the Reagan administra-

h.and group/subgroup membership, norms, beliefs, values, and decorum such as

Meanwhile, the profession of social work still faces some forms of modern criticism. Gambrill argued that social work has not moved much beyond an authoritybased approach, which develops tolerance for assumptions and takes for granted top-to-bottom interventions [15]. Gambrill particularly bemoaned the lack of client involvement regarding informed participation in services, program effectiveness,

Other scholars echoed Gambrill's concern in reference to effectiveness of social programs. In particular, Joseph and Stoefller and Joseph contended that, in the United States, lawmakers and social services agencies do not always implement macro policies based on empirical evidence [16–18]. Therefore, the social work profession has an obligation to question the effectiveness of programs. Before advocating for the expansion of social policies, it would be standard practice for social workers to know whether those policies are effective in the first

With much of the funding for social services coming from the government, social work stakeholders may feel compelled to play by the rules defined unilaterally by the funding source. Opposing the government would tantamount to conflict of interest charges against social services organizations. It is important to mention that if social work becomes a fulcrum through which the government implements unscientific interventions, then the authority-based criticism leveled by Gambrill against the profession is justified. As far as social work is concerned, becoming an

Fortunately, social workers in general (scholars, researchers, graduate students, and clinicians) are committed to science, evidenced-based practice, and advocacy. Therefore, despite the concerns previously mentioned, the profession of social work still stands on scientific grounds and remains arguably the first and last line of defense against the system. As criticism only serves to make a profession stronger, members of the social work community need to figure out how to work with the government without losing their independence. The next section describes why

Kirst-Ashman (2013) argued that social work draws on many other disciplines for its knowledge base [19]. These include but are not limited to sociology, psychology, political science, psychiatry, economics, and law [19]. However, social work

extension of any unfair system is nothing short of heresy.

social work is different from all other professions.

differs quite significantly for other professions with respect to:

**2.3 Uniqueness of the profession**

c.the establishment of the professional bodies (NASW and CSWE),

f.the NASW Code of Ethics (confidentiality, code of ethics),

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91671*

tion in 1984 (public recognition),

NASW chapters (professional culture).

and empowerment for advocacy [15].

improvement),

jurisdiction),

place [16–18].

*The Appealability of the Social Work Profession in the United States: Possible Explanations DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91671*

c.the establishment of the professional bodies (NASW and CSWE),


Meanwhile, the profession of social work still faces some forms of modern criticism. Gambrill argued that social work has not moved much beyond an authoritybased approach, which develops tolerance for assumptions and takes for granted top-to-bottom interventions [15]. Gambrill particularly bemoaned the lack of client involvement regarding informed participation in services, program effectiveness, and empowerment for advocacy [15].

Other scholars echoed Gambrill's concern in reference to effectiveness of social programs. In particular, Joseph and Stoefller and Joseph contended that, in the United States, lawmakers and social services agencies do not always implement macro policies based on empirical evidence [16–18]. Therefore, the social work profession has an obligation to question the effectiveness of programs. Before advocating for the expansion of social policies, it would be standard practice for social workers to know whether those policies are effective in the first place [16–18].

With much of the funding for social services coming from the government, social work stakeholders may feel compelled to play by the rules defined unilaterally by the funding source. Opposing the government would tantamount to conflict of interest charges against social services organizations. It is important to mention that if social work becomes a fulcrum through which the government implements unscientific interventions, then the authority-based criticism leveled by Gambrill against the profession is justified. As far as social work is concerned, becoming an extension of any unfair system is nothing short of heresy.

Fortunately, social workers in general (scholars, researchers, graduate students, and clinicians) are committed to science, evidenced-based practice, and advocacy. Therefore, despite the concerns previously mentioned, the profession of social work still stands on scientific grounds and remains arguably the first and last line of defense against the system. As criticism only serves to make a profession stronger, members of the social work community need to figure out how to work with the government without losing their independence. The next section describes why social work is different from all other professions.

#### **2.3 Uniqueness of the profession**

Kirst-Ashman (2013) argued that social work draws on many other disciplines for its knowledge base [19]. These include but are not limited to sociology, psychology, political science, psychiatry, economics, and law [19]. However, social work differs quite significantly for other professions with respect to:

*Global Social Work - Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections*

In 1957, Ernest Greenwood, University of California, Berkeley social welfare researcher and professor, launched a significant counterargument to Flexner's claim that "social work is not a profession." In his essay, "Attributes of a Profession," Greenwood stipulated that social work is a profession [12]. The difference between Flexner and Greenwood lies in the criteria of selection upon which the scholars based their respective argument. As exhibited in **Table 1**, Greenwood's framework includes the following criteria: systematic theory, professional authority, community sanction, ethical codes, and culture. The criteria in this framework are fundamentally different from those found in Flexner's model (see Flexner's work as

**Authors Criteria Criteria met**

Esotericism Yes Practical purpose Yes Curriculum Yes Commitment Yes Social welfare Yes

Educational institution Yes Professional bodies Yes Public recognition Yes Maintenance and improvement Yes Client confidential relationship Yes

Authority Yes Community sanction Yes Ethical codes Yes Professional culture Yes

Flexner (1915) Knowledge and responsibility Yes

Wickenden (1941) Common heritage of knowledge Yes

Greenwood (1957) Systematic theory Yes

Abbott (1988) Jurisdiction Yes

*Adapted from the work of Flexner, Wickenden, Greenwood, and Abbott.*

Although not part of the feud between Flexner and Greenwood, Wickenden and Abbott contributed heavily to the discussion [13, 14]. Common heritage of knowledge and skills, educational institution, professional bodies, public recognition, maintenance and improvement, and confidential relationship between practitioners and clients are criteria suggested by Wickenden [13]. Abbott's notion of *jurisdiction* implies the uniqueness of social work [14]. More consideration will be

Today, the field of social work meets the criteria for a profession as expressed in

b.the proliferation of social work degrees across many colleges and universities

given to Abbott's sense of professional jurisdiction in the next section.

a.the implementation of core courses and competencies (curriculum/

the work of Flexner, Wickenden, Greenwood, and Abbott through:

common body of knowledge and skills/jurisdiction),

**82**

described above [10]).

*The validity of the social work profession.*

**Table 1.**

(educational institution),

