**4. Addressing social competence in inclusive classrooms**

Instructional strategies for addressing social competence include embedding the teaching of social skills in each day's classroom routines and activities, as well as more explicit teaching of specific skills. Common social skills emphasized in early childhood curricula include those presented in **Table 1** below [14].

#### **4.1 Embedded teaching**

An initial step to addressing social competence in the preschool classroom includes identifying the skills that most children need to work on and ensuring that universal teaching strategies address these throughout the day. For children who require additional support or a greater number of opportunities to work on a particular skill, embedded teaching provides a framework for planning (e.g., [15]). Embedded teaching involves examining the daily routine and its varied learning activities and identifying wherein specific group or individualized outcomes may be addressed. In this sense, it combines accommodations for diverse children and targeted teaching strategies within a naturalistic approach that does not require significant individualized intervention or time away from the other priorities of teaching to accomplish. For instance, a teacher might intentionally model and teach skills such as requesting, questioning, commenting, and sharing while partnering with children in pretend play in the house area based upon the needs of particular children there and because that center provides a meaningful context within which to embed the teaching of those skills. In this sense, the teacher takes advantage of

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Entering others' play

Engaging in parallel play

Social problem-solving Coping with the inevitability of limited resources (e.g., materials/

manipulatives)

Communicating emotions to others Expressing emotions in adaptive ways Recognizing that one's actions affect others Acknowledging and responding to others emotions

Responding to the initiations or invitations of others

Cooperating in talking through a social problem

Making choices that defuse or prevent conflict

Accepting and acting upon potential solutions to social problems

Managing impulses through self-control

Making attempts at cooperative play

Communicating a social problem

these natural opportunities, acknowledges children who use these behaviors, and narrates intentionally to highlight their presence and importance. The teacher then may help younger peers who do not yet demonstrate those social skills to respond positively and to perhaps attempt the skills themselves with support. Everyday routines such as meals and snack times present another set of natural opportunities within which to embed the teaching of social skills such as greeting, conversational turn-taking, requesting and saying "thank you." Mealtimes also offer an opportunity to address and normalize children's varied cultural practices in relation to food. In inclusive classrooms, teachers systematize the identification and use of these natural opportunities, while also identifying skills for which more explicit lessons or activities may be needed. Note that in embedded teaching, the center/routine/ activity may lend itself to certain forms of social interaction, but the teacher engages in active planning to both maximize the benefit of these opportunities and make room for additional ones. While this does require flexibility and in-the-moment responsiveness, it also requires that teachers (a) recognize key group and individual social-emotional needs, (b) understand that children in the naturally occurring and planned groups of the preschool day (as opposed to children who seem to be isolated or independent) will benefit from embedded teaching, (c) proactively plan across the daily routine, and (d) consider and select the best ways to deliver social supports within a variety of contexts. In this sense, it goes beyond intentional interaction

Our understanding of the benefits of social competence and the risks associated with a lack of it is generally better understood than the use of supports and teaching strategies in the preschool classroom. While a variety of curricula, activities, assessment tools, and intervention strategies have been developed, none of them have an evidence base that encompasses the diversity of children, families, program models, or unique learning needs/disabilities preschool educators must navigate. Widely adopted early childhood curricula (such as The Creative Curriculum) and approaches (such as HighScope) include social-emotional goals, objectives, and/or indicators

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*

Emotional understanding and

empathy

**Table 1.**

**Skill area Social skills**

Maintaining social interaction Turn-taking

*Social skills emphasized in the preschool classroom.*

Initiation of play Initiating social interactions

because it is both targeted and preplanned.

**4.2 Explicit teaching**

*Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early Childhood… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*


#### **Table 1.**

*Early Childhood Education*

situations

community

**4.1 Embedded teaching**

• Responsive instructional practices, aligned with DAP's three principles, which respond to children's interests, motivation, and lives outside the classroom

• Proactive environmental and instructional accommodations which ensure the access to and understanding of the curriculum for children with widely vary-

• Classroom communities that actively support cooperation through explicit and responsive teaching of skills with value beyond isolated classroom

• Classroom activities that involve heterogenous grouping, jointly planned and including the input of all key members of the early childhood program

When children with identified disabilities are included in the preschool classroom, these four sets of practices provide a strong supportive context for better inclusiveness of the classroom as a whole and for addressing individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and its subsequent amendments mandate services for children aged 3–5 with disabilities within the least restrictive environment (LRE), which is defined as the educational environment as close to where nondisabled same-aged peers would be served as possible. In states where this results in a higher percentage of children with disabilities in general education classrooms for the majority of the time, the use of punitive disciplinary measures is lower. This means that collaboration to further the inclusive aims of IDEA through the classroom practices described above further provides a potentially direct remedy to the social justice issue of excessive suspension and expulsion of preschoolers.

Instructional strategies for addressing social competence include embedding the teaching of social skills in each day's classroom routines and activities, as well as more explicit teaching of specific skills. Common social skills emphasized in early

An initial step to addressing social competence in the preschool classroom includes identifying the skills that most children need to work on and ensuring that universal teaching strategies address these throughout the day. For children who require additional support or a greater number of opportunities to work on a particular skill, embedded teaching provides a framework for planning (e.g., [15]). Embedded teaching involves examining the daily routine and its varied learning activities and identifying wherein specific group or individualized outcomes may be addressed. In this sense, it combines accommodations for diverse children and targeted teaching strategies within a naturalistic approach that does not require significant individualized intervention or time away from the other priorities of teaching to accomplish. For instance, a teacher might intentionally model and teach skills such as requesting, questioning, commenting, and sharing while partnering with children in pretend play in the house area based upon the needs of particular children there and because that center provides a meaningful context within which to embed the teaching of those skills. In this sense, the teacher takes advantage of

ing strengths, needs, and approaches to learning

**4. Addressing social competence in inclusive classrooms**

childhood curricula include those presented in **Table 1** below [14].

**274**

*Social skills emphasized in the preschool classroom.*

these natural opportunities, acknowledges children who use these behaviors, and narrates intentionally to highlight their presence and importance. The teacher then may help younger peers who do not yet demonstrate those social skills to respond positively and to perhaps attempt the skills themselves with support. Everyday routines such as meals and snack times present another set of natural opportunities within which to embed the teaching of social skills such as greeting, conversational turn-taking, requesting and saying "thank you." Mealtimes also offer an opportunity to address and normalize children's varied cultural practices in relation to food. In inclusive classrooms, teachers systematize the identification and use of these natural opportunities, while also identifying skills for which more explicit lessons or activities may be needed. Note that in embedded teaching, the center/routine/ activity may lend itself to certain forms of social interaction, but the teacher engages in active planning to both maximize the benefit of these opportunities and make room for additional ones. While this does require flexibility and in-the-moment responsiveness, it also requires that teachers (a) recognize key group and individual social-emotional needs, (b) understand that children in the naturally occurring and planned groups of the preschool day (as opposed to children who seem to be isolated or independent) will benefit from embedded teaching, (c) proactively plan across the daily routine, and (d) consider and select the best ways to deliver social supports within a variety of contexts. In this sense, it goes beyond intentional interaction because it is both targeted and preplanned.

#### **4.2 Explicit teaching**

Our understanding of the benefits of social competence and the risks associated with a lack of it is generally better understood than the use of supports and teaching strategies in the preschool classroom. While a variety of curricula, activities, assessment tools, and intervention strategies have been developed, none of them have an evidence base that encompasses the diversity of children, families, program models, or unique learning needs/disabilities preschool educators must navigate. Widely adopted early childhood curricula (such as The Creative Curriculum) and approaches (such as HighScope) include social-emotional goals, objectives, and/or indicators

(i.e., specific skills) that can guide instruction in preschool classrooms. The explicit instruction of these skills takes many different forms. In The Creative Curriculum, teaching activities include what could be called embedded teaching focusing on social-emotional goals and objectives in children's play at various classroom centers. However, specific guidelines as to how to teach particular skills are lacking. In the HighScope approach, social and emotional indicators are assessed and planned for, and a hierarchy of strategies to support child-directed active learning is included. In addition, a specific model for intervening and supporting children to problem-solve through common conflicts is provided. It does, however, rely upon the existing skills of children to navigate its complex steps, which can take years to master.

Identifying high-leverage social skill instructional approaches within these approaches is challenging at best, as teaching strategies are typically employed within their curriculum frameworks. While evidence suggests that both of the approaches mentioned above demonstrate some effectiveness in improving overall developmental outcomes for young children, an evidence base for specific teaching strategies within those approaches is lacking. Nevertheless, certain commonalities across these approaches can be identified, representing a survey of common "best" practices. These include:


**277**

*Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early Childhood…*

Contingent natural reinforcement can come in the form of narration combined with positive reinforcement (e.g., "Martie shared her crayons with you; Martie, you are sharing nicely with your friends"). Such reinforcement should be specific (as opposed to "good job" or "that is so nice"), clearly identifying the child's social skill. In this way, the reinforcement should evolve as the behavior evolves. Over time, these prompts can be faded or be replaced with more developmentally appropriate/specific ones. Redirection can also be used when children require more specific information about what to do or what social

• *Monitoring with narration and problem*-*posing.* Here, teachers observe children as they interact, providing narration of both their play and of its socialemotional landscape, highlighting feelings, themes, and behaviors of which they would like children to increase their awareness. These are also valuable instances where teachers can infuse feelings vocabulary and pose ideas or problems for children to explore, e.g., "I wonder what might happen if you ask him to let you join." It is in contexts such as this that sets of strategies such as the HighScope problem-solving approach to conflict resolution would fit nicely, as this approach is designed to be implemented as children's play and interactions

In context, strategies such as these can effectively dovetail with the teaching of many other skills in the preschool classroom, and they can be particularly necessary in inclusive classrooms where the input, support, and prompting of the teacher may be necessary in order for interaction to occur (or occur successfully). Preschool educators should keep in mind that teacher-directed and structured activities to address social skills represent only one aspect of a healthy learning environment where positive relationships and a sense of community are developed. Explicit instruction of social skills works best in classrooms where children are offered a sufficient amount of freedom and choice and where activities and materials emphasize

Where children with disabilities are present, a single approach certainly will not meet the needs of all children. Many children with disabilities benefit from basic classroom accommodations and seek out social interaction with peers, while other children may need more specialized, individualized social skill supports provided by their individualized education plan (IEP) teams, including special education professionals. Preschool educators must understand children as individuals rather than as members of a perceived disability category. By observing such children, learning their interests, preferences, and sources of motivation, as well as their experience/degree of success in social interaction and more informed decisions, can be made as to how children with disabilities will respond to existing practices and whether more targeted social skills interventions may be necessary. But it is always better for such interventions to be delivered within positive nurturing relationships with skilled and understanding adults who appreciate that social competence is part of a complex ecological system rather than simply a characteristic of children to be

In diverse preschool classrooms, play-based learning and social relationships form an important piece of the foundation of social development and influence later

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*

choices are available to them.

call for it—in other words, when conflicts occur.

shared control between adults and children.

simplistically judged by others.

**5. Interventions to address social skills**

*Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early Childhood… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*

Contingent natural reinforcement can come in the form of narration combined with positive reinforcement (e.g., "Martie shared her crayons with you; Martie, you are sharing nicely with your friends"). Such reinforcement should be specific (as opposed to "good job" or "that is so nice"), clearly identifying the child's social skill. In this way, the reinforcement should evolve as the behavior evolves. Over time, these prompts can be faded or be replaced with more developmentally appropriate/specific ones. Redirection can also be used when children require more specific information about what to do or what social choices are available to them.

• *Monitoring with narration and problem*-*posing.* Here, teachers observe children as they interact, providing narration of both their play and of its socialemotional landscape, highlighting feelings, themes, and behaviors of which they would like children to increase their awareness. These are also valuable instances where teachers can infuse feelings vocabulary and pose ideas or problems for children to explore, e.g., "I wonder what might happen if you ask him to let you join." It is in contexts such as this that sets of strategies such as the HighScope problem-solving approach to conflict resolution would fit nicely, as this approach is designed to be implemented as children's play and interactions call for it—in other words, when conflicts occur.

In context, strategies such as these can effectively dovetail with the teaching of many other skills in the preschool classroom, and they can be particularly necessary in inclusive classrooms where the input, support, and prompting of the teacher may be necessary in order for interaction to occur (or occur successfully). Preschool educators should keep in mind that teacher-directed and structured activities to address social skills represent only one aspect of a healthy learning environment where positive relationships and a sense of community are developed. Explicit instruction of social skills works best in classrooms where children are offered a sufficient amount of freedom and choice and where activities and materials emphasize shared control between adults and children.

Where children with disabilities are present, a single approach certainly will not meet the needs of all children. Many children with disabilities benefit from basic classroom accommodations and seek out social interaction with peers, while other children may need more specialized, individualized social skill supports provided by their individualized education plan (IEP) teams, including special education professionals. Preschool educators must understand children as individuals rather than as members of a perceived disability category. By observing such children, learning their interests, preferences, and sources of motivation, as well as their experience/degree of success in social interaction and more informed decisions, can be made as to how children with disabilities will respond to existing practices and whether more targeted social skills interventions may be necessary. But it is always better for such interventions to be delivered within positive nurturing relationships with skilled and understanding adults who appreciate that social competence is part of a complex ecological system rather than simply a characteristic of children to be simplistically judged by others.

#### **5. Interventions to address social skills**

In diverse preschool classrooms, play-based learning and social relationships form an important piece of the foundation of social development and influence later

*Early Childhood Education*

practices. These include:

attempt these skills.

(i.e., specific skills) that can guide instruction in preschool classrooms. The explicit instruction of these skills takes many different forms. In The Creative Curriculum, teaching activities include what could be called embedded teaching focusing on social-emotional goals and objectives in children's play at various classroom centers. However, specific guidelines as to how to teach particular skills are lacking. In the HighScope approach, social and emotional indicators are assessed and planned for, and a hierarchy of strategies to support child-directed active learning is included. In addition, a specific model for intervening and supporting children to problem-solve through common conflicts is provided. It does, however, rely upon the existing skills

Identifying high-leverage social skill instructional approaches within these approaches is challenging at best, as teaching strategies are typically employed within their curriculum frameworks. While evidence suggests that both of the approaches mentioned above demonstrate some effectiveness in improving overall developmental outcomes for young children, an evidence base for specific teaching strategies within those approaches is lacking. Nevertheless, certain commonalities across these approaches can be identified, representing a survey of common "best"

• *Direct instruction*. In classrooms where explicit teaching is used, teachers must (a) ensure that they address all of the types of critical early childhood social skills, including emotional understanding/empathy, initiation of play, maintaining interactions, and social problem-solving; (b) teach through the use of concrete and observable examples to which young children can relate; (c) integrate the skill across the curriculum, including making connections to literature wherever possible; (d) ensure that the skill is comprehensible and meaningful and involves behaviors that young children can successfully enact; (e) provide extensive opportunities for children to practice the skill in the context of natural activities within which the skills have a high likelihood of enhancing relationships and perceived competence; and(d) provide continuous support (through both feedback and encouragement) to children as they

• *Social skill mini-lessons*. This involves teaching children specific social behaviors, such as taking turns or requesting toys from adults/peers, as children begin center-based activities or play. This instruction can occur at classroom centers (such as the block or art area) themselves or be delivered to the whole group prior to initiating such activities. Mini-lessons are often used to address situations that emerge throughout the week or during a unit in response to or to address anticipated issues that arise from, say, limited materials at a center or the entry of a new child to the classroom. Typically, teachers will use this type of approach to supplement more explicit instruction or as a substitute when

time or other resources do not allow for a more systematic approach.

• *Behavioral supports*. Here, teachers utilize behavioral learning in order to increase the frequency of socially competent behavior, decrease problematic or aggressive behavior, and shape emerging social skills in context. Behavioral supports include prompting, contingent natural reinforcement, and redirection. These behavioral supports can be provided in conjunction with explicit instruction or be utilized in response to ongoing observation and classroom assessment. Behavioral prompts given to young children should be clear and concise, and wherever possible teachers should model desired social skills.

of children to navigate its complex steps, which can take years to master.

**276**

academic achievement. At the same time, the consequences of disabilities in early childhood and/or insufficient or inappropriate social behavior destabilize that foundation. Over time, these differences and deficits predict negative outcomes such as emotional and behavior problems, disciplinary action, and school dropout. In other words, the social and behavioral challenges faced by many children with disabilities worsen over time in the absence of intervention. In this sense, social competence interventions may be viewed as essential forms of both intervention and prevention.

Interventions of various types are available to improve social skills in early childhood, including increasing the frequency and quality of specific skills and enhancing social pragmatic skills (which include both the verbal and nonverbal behaviors associated with interactive and cooperative play). What remains to determine is whether these interventions produce effects across contexts that are long-lasting and that make an impact on meaningful social behaviors and social competence rather than simply increasing the instance of isolated skills. Studies examining these factors are greatly needed, as well as ones that include the perspectives of peers and caregivers within a more context-specific model of social competence.

Social skill interventions generally fall into one of four categories: systematic arrangement of the classroom environment, behavioral strategies, instructional approaches, and combined approaches (which utilize elements of two or more of the above). These interventions share many features with the universal instructional strategies discussed earlier in this chapter. What distinguishes interventions from such strategies is a set of practices that includes (a) predetermined decisions about the frequency, intensity, and duration of the intervention; (b) a matching of the intervention to identified individual or group needs; (c) the use of assessment tools to establish skill performance levels and track progress; (d) goals identified either from individual children's IEPs or by analyzing data on current levels of performance. Interventions ideally also have an evidence base supporting their use; however, preschool teachers frequently do not have either the resources or the preparation necessary to access and evaluate such evidence. Interventions may also be embedded into multitiered systems of support (discussed later in this chapter).

Systematic arrangement of the classroom environment, sometimes referred to as environmental arrangements [16] or structured play, is a means of more effectively facilitating social interaction (e.g., altering the size, arrangement, or materials at a center to perhaps facilitate more cooperative play). Such strategies are the lowest intensity form of social competence intervention, and virtually no evidence base exists in the literature verify their effectiveness. However, environmental arrangement is an important consideration for educators as they design more direct and intensive interventions.

Behavioral strategies again use cues, prompts, and positive reinforcement to increase interactive social and play behaviors. As part of a systematic intervention strategy, they can be effective in increasing the social behavior of children with autism spectrum disorder. They can involve peers and occur across contexts, allowing for greater generalization. An example of a behavioral intervention might involve peers in increasing opportunities for target children's interactive play. Peers are positively reinforced for following through on-stated plans for social play that include choosing target children as playmates. A key consideration in behavioral strategies is that they are usually focused on specific behaviors, while the context of social competence is quite complex. Careful monitoring is essential to ensure that behavioral strategies are part of a systematic approach that increases desired behaviors, decreases undesirable ones, and addresses competence as a whole. As an example, an intervention that focuses on initiations may be successful in getting children to interact, but without focusing on the complexities of maintaining

**279**

*Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early Childhood…*

positive interactions, such interventions, can lead to increased conflict among children without consistent adult monitoring and attention to additional social

Instructional approaches include any intervention involving the direct instruction of children in specific skills such as sharing, helping others, and initiating social interaction (e.g., [17, 18]). These preschool social competence interventions have the strongest evidence base for children with special needs and involve teacher-led social skill activities followed by supported play. In other words, using a variety of strategies, teachers help children to learn and master the skills, including offering support during the times when children have natural opportunities to use them. In some cases, teachers may directly teach social behaviors (such as greetings or requests for toys) and then follow up during play. For example, at circle time, a teacher and children sing a new song about inviting others to play. She then follows the children into the learning centers, watches and listens as some children try this new behavior, and supports children who are playing alone, but seem ready to learn to invite a friend to join them. Some children might respond to a prompt; others might need the teacher to model what to say and do. Such adult-mediated instructionally-based social competence interventions can have a significant positive effect on the social competence of young children with special needs when offered in naturalistic settings. Given that instructional approaches are the most widely studied and that these may be integrated into existing classroom activities across a wide variety of settings, the potential for their utility in inclusive

The use of social skill interventions with preschool-aged children is well supported in published research, with a variety of programs showing a positive impact on specific skills in both specialized and inclusive settings. Some of the positive outcomes include increased social language and play initiations, and decreased maladaptive behavior, and increased overall competence as observed by adults. But while published research appears to indicate that these interventions have a generally positive relationship with various social skills and other behaviors associated with social competence, many questions regarding their impact on overall competence remain unanswered. The impact of social competence interventions has been found to vary across variables such as gender, age groups, risk factors, and disabilities. There are no consistent guidelines regarding intervention length and intensity, type of interventionist, treatment integrity, and presence of follow-up. Few of these

What remains to debate is whether these interventions produce effects *across contexts that are long-lasting and that make an impact on meaningful forms of social behavior and relationships*. Studies examining these factors are greatly needed, as well as ones that include the perspectives of peers and caregivers within a more comprehensive and culturally situated model of competence. Generalization and maintenance are also areas of missed opportunity and have not been sufficiently addressed in this body of research, as most social skill intervention studies do not follow children over time, across settings, or view competence multidimensionally as opposed to assessing specific behaviors or

**6. Integrative models for promoting preschool social competence**

Social competence can be integrated into multitiered systems of support [19] that (a) organize common approaches as classroom-wide (universal), naturalistic

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*

competence dimensions.

classrooms is great.

variables have been explored sufficiently.

short-term adult perceptions.

*Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early Childhood… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*

positive interactions, such interventions, can lead to increased conflict among children without consistent adult monitoring and attention to additional social competence dimensions.

Instructional approaches include any intervention involving the direct instruction of children in specific skills such as sharing, helping others, and initiating social interaction (e.g., [17, 18]). These preschool social competence interventions have the strongest evidence base for children with special needs and involve teacher-led social skill activities followed by supported play. In other words, using a variety of strategies, teachers help children to learn and master the skills, including offering support during the times when children have natural opportunities to use them. In some cases, teachers may directly teach social behaviors (such as greetings or requests for toys) and then follow up during play. For example, at circle time, a teacher and children sing a new song about inviting others to play. She then follows the children into the learning centers, watches and listens as some children try this new behavior, and supports children who are playing alone, but seem ready to learn to invite a friend to join them. Some children might respond to a prompt; others might need the teacher to model what to say and do. Such adult-mediated instructionally-based social competence interventions can have a significant positive effect on the social competence of young children with special needs when offered in naturalistic settings. Given that instructional approaches are the most widely studied and that these may be integrated into existing classroom activities across a wide variety of settings, the potential for their utility in inclusive classrooms is great.

The use of social skill interventions with preschool-aged children is well supported in published research, with a variety of programs showing a positive impact on specific skills in both specialized and inclusive settings. Some of the positive outcomes include increased social language and play initiations, and decreased maladaptive behavior, and increased overall competence as observed by adults. But while published research appears to indicate that these interventions have a generally positive relationship with various social skills and other behaviors associated with social competence, many questions regarding their impact on overall competence remain unanswered. The impact of social competence interventions has been found to vary across variables such as gender, age groups, risk factors, and disabilities. There are no consistent guidelines regarding intervention length and intensity, type of interventionist, treatment integrity, and presence of follow-up. Few of these variables have been explored sufficiently.

What remains to debate is whether these interventions produce effects *across contexts that are long-lasting and that make an impact on meaningful forms of social behavior and relationships*. Studies examining these factors are greatly needed, as well as ones that include the perspectives of peers and caregivers within a more comprehensive and culturally situated model of competence. Generalization and maintenance are also areas of missed opportunity and have not been sufficiently addressed in this body of research, as most social skill intervention studies do not follow children over time, across settings, or view competence multidimensionally as opposed to assessing specific behaviors or short-term adult perceptions.

#### **6. Integrative models for promoting preschool social competence**

Social competence can be integrated into multitiered systems of support [19] that (a) organize common approaches as classroom-wide (universal), naturalistic

*Early Childhood Education*

academic achievement. At the same time, the consequences of disabilities in early childhood and/or insufficient or inappropriate social behavior destabilize that foundation. Over time, these differences and deficits predict negative outcomes such as emotional and behavior problems, disciplinary action, and school dropout. In other words, the social and behavioral challenges faced by many children with disabilities worsen over time in the absence of intervention. In this sense, social competence interventions may be viewed as essential forms of both intervention and prevention. Interventions of various types are available to improve social skills in early childhood, including increasing the frequency and quality of specific skills and enhancing social pragmatic skills (which include both the verbal and nonverbal behaviors associated with interactive and cooperative play). What remains to determine is whether these interventions produce effects across contexts that are long-lasting and that make an impact on meaningful social behaviors and social competence rather than simply increasing the instance of isolated skills. Studies examining these factors are greatly needed, as well as ones that include the perspectives of peers and

caregivers within a more context-specific model of social competence.

of support (discussed later in this chapter).

intensive interventions.

Social skill interventions generally fall into one of four categories: systematic arrangement of the classroom environment, behavioral strategies, instructional approaches, and combined approaches (which utilize elements of two or more of the above). These interventions share many features with the universal instructional strategies discussed earlier in this chapter. What distinguishes interventions from such strategies is a set of practices that includes (a) predetermined decisions about the frequency, intensity, and duration of the intervention; (b) a matching of the intervention to identified individual or group needs; (c) the use of assessment tools to establish skill performance levels and track progress; (d) goals identified either from individual children's IEPs or by analyzing data on current levels of performance. Interventions ideally also have an evidence base supporting their use; however, preschool teachers frequently do not have either the resources or the preparation necessary to access and evaluate such evidence. Interventions may also be embedded into multitiered systems

Systematic arrangement of the classroom environment, sometimes referred to as environmental arrangements [16] or structured play, is a means of more effectively facilitating social interaction (e.g., altering the size, arrangement, or materials at a center to perhaps facilitate more cooperative play). Such strategies are the lowest intensity form of social competence intervention, and virtually no evidence base exists in the literature verify their effectiveness. However, environmental arrangement is an important consideration for educators as they design more direct and

Behavioral strategies again use cues, prompts, and positive reinforcement to increase interactive social and play behaviors. As part of a systematic intervention strategy, they can be effective in increasing the social behavior of children with autism spectrum disorder. They can involve peers and occur across contexts, allowing for greater generalization. An example of a behavioral intervention might involve peers in increasing opportunities for target children's interactive play. Peers are positively reinforced for following through on-stated plans for social play that include choosing target children as playmates. A key consideration in behavioral strategies is that they are usually focused on specific behaviors, while the context of social competence is quite complex. Careful monitoring is essential to ensure that behavioral strategies are part of a systematic approach that increases desired behaviors, decreases undesirable ones, and addresses competence as a whole. As an example, an intervention that focuses on initiations may be successful in getting children to interact, but without focusing on the complexities of maintaining

**278**

(targeted), and explicit (intensive) [20]. Considering available interventions through this three-tiered lens is an essential step in aligning practice with the federal law. Some include social skill curricula as a universal intervention at the first of three tiers of support. Other approaches such as the Pyramid Model [21, 22], which is now in use in 29 of the United States, offer a comprehensive model including coaching and professional development effectiveness in both increasing social skills and addressing behaviors that interfere with preschool children's learning and relationships. The Pyramid Model emphasizes professional development in evidence-based practices, as well as nurturing relationships and a healthy, developmentally appropriate classroom environment as the foundation of preschoolers' social-emotional development. This implementation of social-emotional supports and interventions represents the top levels of the pyramid, which was designed to complement the tiers of response-to-intervention models while adapting them to address the realities and needs of the field of early childhood education (including children under age three). Such models not only hold great promise in terms of positively influencing the social competence of children but also create networks of support, resources, professional development, and data that will continue to bear fruit as they are even more widely implemented.

**Figure 2** is designed to place such models into context, as they address only part of a broader realm of need in the early childhood field. First and foremost, increasing the amount and depth of teacher preparation in this area is critical. Innovation in teacher education has moved from the university classroom to field-based preparation embedded in mutually beneficial partnerships with early childhood education programs, and it is in these field-based apprenticeships that the awareness, relationships, and practices to address preschool social competence must be learned and developed [23]. The merging of professional preparation and development

**281**

culture of trust and growth.

*Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early Childhood…*

provides an essential opportunity to learn, practice, and reflect critically upon practices as they are designed and implemented with diverse children. In this sense, the obligation of culturally sustaining teaching practice becomes the everyday work of the teacher candidate (rather than an abstract notion to be faced upon entry to

Through supported reflective practice and experience with children and families, preschool teachers can grow to understand the complexity of socialemotional development and all of the factors influencing social competence, as well as the role of the educator and the early childhood program in teaching and intervening to influence positive outcomes. Through empowering teachers to understand and work within this complex system, successful inclusion and an inclusive philosophy are born. At this point, a critical lens on discipline and punishment of young children widens, and comprehensive-tiered systems and the interventions therein may flourish. In this sense, all key players in the preparation, support, and everyday work of preschool educators have a role in promoting

Children who have positive relationships with peers in inclusive classrooms become accustomed to play with children of varying ability levels and may carry their inclusive experiences and perspectives as they move forward into K-12 education, which represents a meaningful, long-lasting impact on our field and the

Preschool provides key opportunities to understand and influence the social competence system on which many aspects of future development are based. Teachers in inclusive classrooms can strengthen this foundation by engaging in culturally sustaining practice, directly teaching a variety of social skills in accordance with or alongside the preschool curriculum, utilizing inclusive practices and interventions to avoid or defuse punitive practices, and by engaging in collaborative and tiered systems of professional development, support,

Without sufficient preparation, professional development, and the integration of intervention efforts in collaborative systems of teacher, child, and family support, preschool educators are not likely to meet the social competence needs of all children in inclusive classrooms. Teacher preparation must more strongly emphasize these teaching and intervention skills, so that preschool educators feel confident prompting, supporting, and further developing children's social behaviors so that inclusion programs can be successful. Teacher preparation programs can accomplish this in several ways. First, by emphasizing meaningful community partnerships, programs can better align the aims of field-based teacher preparation (see, [23]) with those of early childhood programs—in other words, by focusing teacher candidates' time in classrooms on making a positive, measurable impact on the development (including social behavior) of children. Next, through supported practice under constant faculty supervision, candidates can successfully succeed at teaching and intervention practices that are particularly challenging to enact in practice (including addressing challenging behavior and improving social competence across people and settings). Finally, by aligning these preparation activities with professional development offered within mutually beneficial partnerships, preparation programs and early childhood education programs create a shared

the field), with support from faculty and practicing teachers.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*

social competence for each and every child.

children and families served within in.

**7. Conclusions**

and intervention.

**Figure 2.** *Interrelated factors promoting preschool social competence.*

#### *Promoting the Social Competence of Each and Every Child in Inclusive Early Childhood… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80858*

provides an essential opportunity to learn, practice, and reflect critically upon practices as they are designed and implemented with diverse children. In this sense, the obligation of culturally sustaining teaching practice becomes the everyday work of the teacher candidate (rather than an abstract notion to be faced upon entry to the field), with support from faculty and practicing teachers.

Through supported reflective practice and experience with children and families, preschool teachers can grow to understand the complexity of socialemotional development and all of the factors influencing social competence, as well as the role of the educator and the early childhood program in teaching and intervening to influence positive outcomes. Through empowering teachers to understand and work within this complex system, successful inclusion and an inclusive philosophy are born. At this point, a critical lens on discipline and punishment of young children widens, and comprehensive-tiered systems and the interventions therein may flourish. In this sense, all key players in the preparation, support, and everyday work of preschool educators have a role in promoting social competence for each and every child.

### **7. Conclusions**

*Early Childhood Education*

fruit as they are even more widely implemented.

(targeted), and explicit (intensive) [20]. Considering available interventions through this three-tiered lens is an essential step in aligning practice with the federal law. Some include social skill curricula as a universal intervention at the first of three tiers of support. Other approaches such as the Pyramid Model [21, 22], which is now in use in 29 of the United States, offer a comprehensive model including coaching and professional development effectiveness in both increasing social skills and addressing behaviors that interfere with preschool children's learning and relationships. The Pyramid Model emphasizes professional development in evidence-based practices, as well as nurturing relationships and a healthy, developmentally appropriate classroom environment as the foundation of preschoolers' social-emotional development. This implementation of social-emotional supports and interventions represents the top levels of the pyramid, which was designed to complement the tiers of response-to-intervention models while adapting them to address the realities and needs of the field of early childhood education (including children under age three). Such models not only hold great promise in terms of positively influencing the social competence of children but also create networks of support, resources, professional development, and data that will continue to bear

**Figure 2** is designed to place such models into context, as they address only part of a broader realm of need in the early childhood field. First and foremost, increasing the amount and depth of teacher preparation in this area is critical. Innovation in teacher education has moved from the university classroom to field-based preparation embedded in mutually beneficial partnerships with early childhood education programs, and it is in these field-based apprenticeships that the awareness, relationships, and practices to address preschool social competence must be learned and developed [23]. The merging of professional preparation and development

**280**

**Figure 2.**

*Interrelated factors promoting preschool social competence.*

Children who have positive relationships with peers in inclusive classrooms become accustomed to play with children of varying ability levels and may carry their inclusive experiences and perspectives as they move forward into K-12 education, which represents a meaningful, long-lasting impact on our field and the children and families served within in.

Preschool provides key opportunities to understand and influence the social competence system on which many aspects of future development are based. Teachers in inclusive classrooms can strengthen this foundation by engaging in culturally sustaining practice, directly teaching a variety of social skills in accordance with or alongside the preschool curriculum, utilizing inclusive practices and interventions to avoid or defuse punitive practices, and by engaging in collaborative and tiered systems of professional development, support, and intervention.

Without sufficient preparation, professional development, and the integration of intervention efforts in collaborative systems of teacher, child, and family support, preschool educators are not likely to meet the social competence needs of all children in inclusive classrooms. Teacher preparation must more strongly emphasize these teaching and intervention skills, so that preschool educators feel confident prompting, supporting, and further developing children's social behaviors so that inclusion programs can be successful. Teacher preparation programs can accomplish this in several ways. First, by emphasizing meaningful community partnerships, programs can better align the aims of field-based teacher preparation (see, [23]) with those of early childhood programs—in other words, by focusing teacher candidates' time in classrooms on making a positive, measurable impact on the development (including social behavior) of children. Next, through supported practice under constant faculty supervision, candidates can successfully succeed at teaching and intervention practices that are particularly challenging to enact in practice (including addressing challenging behavior and improving social competence across people and settings). Finally, by aligning these preparation activities with professional development offered within mutually beneficial partnerships, preparation programs and early childhood education programs create a shared culture of trust and growth.
