**3. Educational implications of visual impairments on learning**

#### **3.1 Planning for the needs of students with visual impairments**

Planning for the needs of a child with a visual impairment within an inclusive classroom setting may be seen as a challenge, especially if it is the first time that a general education teacher encounters a student who has vision loss. With adequate background knowledge, support, and recognition of the unique needs of these learners, teachers can appropriately plan to meet the needs of students with visual impairments.

**289**

center-based setting.

educational goals.

*Including Children with Visual Impairments in the Early Childhood Classroom*

Once general education teachers recognize that there are different variations of visual impairment, the next step in planning is to understand the *educational implications* of visual impairments upon learning. The development of students with visual impairments can be affected by many factors. These include, but are not limited to the type and severity of the vision loss, the age of onset of the visual impairment, the amount of intervention received within educational and home settings, use of residual vision, personality, availability of equipment and resources, presence of other disabilities, acceptance, and family involvement. While students with vision loss can accomplish many of the same activities as children who are sighted, these outlying factors can affect education in various ways, causing students who are visually impaired to learn in a variety of different manners. Some students will require only minimal accommodations while others will require extensive accommodations and different tools for learning. These accommodations should be (a) developed and discussed by a team that includes parents, teachers, related service staff, and administrators. While this can be completed in a variety of different ways throughout the world, within the United States this is completed through the use of an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) or Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Because these forms are used within a highly consistent, regulated system within the United States [6], the IFSP and IEP are highlighted in this chapter with the understanding that these same forms may not be used consistently throughout the world. Countries other than the United States may have policies and/or forms unique to their individual laws. In the event that there is not uniformity within other areas, the US forms highlighted within this chapter may serve as an example for teachers in countries where progressive special education is still developing. An Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) is a legal document designed to focus on the needs of the family of a child with special needs, including visual impairment; this document is used for children from birth to the age of three. Within the IFSP, children are served through early intervention teams, usually in the home or a

An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is legal document designed to focus on the education program of a child with special needs, including visual impairment, within school settings. Within the IEP, children ages 3–21 are served within local school programs by the personnel hired within these educational programs. Early childhood educators may encounter both IFSPs and IEPs when serving young children within educational settings; IFSPs will be particularly prevalent at meetings where children are transitioning from early intervention to pre-school settings. The content found within these documents is set by federal law; however, the actual documents used to outline these plans may vary from state-to-state. If they are not included within initial planning meetings, general education teachers who serve children with visual impairments may request to be a part of this team to gain a better understanding of needs, expectations, and accommodations needed to meet

Lack of visual input compromises the ability to see a whole picture or concept as a starting point to learning [23–25]. Learners who can see are able to capture the "whole" of an object through a sense of vision while learners with visual impairments must use their senses to learn from "part to whole." For example, a student who has vision can look at a book, video, picture, or a display at a zoo to understand the concept, size, shape and magnitude of an elephant; the child learns about the "whole" animal at one time. A child with a vision loss cannot see the books, videos, pictures, or displays that provide a "whole" view of the elephant; this child

**3.2 Addressing educational implications of visual impairment**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80928*

#### *Including Children with Visual Impairments in the Early Childhood Classroom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80928*

Once general education teachers recognize that there are different variations of visual impairment, the next step in planning is to understand the *educational implications* of visual impairments upon learning. The development of students with visual impairments can be affected by many factors. These include, but are not limited to the type and severity of the vision loss, the age of onset of the visual impairment, the amount of intervention received within educational and home settings, use of residual vision, personality, availability of equipment and resources, presence of other disabilities, acceptance, and family involvement. While students with vision loss can accomplish many of the same activities as children who are sighted, these outlying factors can affect education in various ways, causing students who are visually impaired to learn in a variety of different manners. Some students will require only minimal accommodations while others will require extensive accommodations and different tools for learning. These accommodations should be (a) developed and discussed by a team that includes parents, teachers, related service staff, and administrators. While this can be completed in a variety of different ways throughout the world, within the United States this is completed through the use of an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) or Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Because these forms are used within a highly consistent, regulated system within the United States [6], the IFSP and IEP are highlighted in this chapter with the understanding that these same forms may not be used consistently throughout the world. Countries other than the United States may have policies and/or forms unique to their individual laws. In the event that there is not uniformity within other areas, the US forms highlighted within this chapter may serve as an example for teachers in countries where progressive special education is still developing.

An Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) is a legal document designed to focus on the needs of the family of a child with special needs, including visual impairment; this document is used for children from birth to the age of three. Within the IFSP, children are served through early intervention teams, usually in the home or a center-based setting.

An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is legal document designed to focus on the education program of a child with special needs, including visual impairment, within school settings. Within the IEP, children ages 3–21 are served within local school programs by the personnel hired within these educational programs. Early childhood educators may encounter both IFSPs and IEPs when serving young children within educational settings; IFSPs will be particularly prevalent at meetings where children are transitioning from early intervention to pre-school settings. The content found within these documents is set by federal law; however, the actual documents used to outline these plans may vary from state-to-state. If they are not included within initial planning meetings, general education teachers who serve children with visual impairments may request to be a part of this team to gain a better understanding of needs, expectations, and accommodations needed to meet educational goals.

#### **3.2 Addressing educational implications of visual impairment**

Lack of visual input compromises the ability to see a whole picture or concept as a starting point to learning [23–25]. Learners who can see are able to capture the "whole" of an object through a sense of vision while learners with visual impairments must use their senses to learn from "part to whole." For example, a student who has vision can look at a book, video, picture, or a display at a zoo to understand the concept, size, shape and magnitude of an elephant; the child learns about the "whole" animal at one time. A child with a vision loss cannot see the books, videos, pictures, or displays that provide a "whole" view of the elephant; this child

*Early Childhood Education*

hend what is being seen.

within the educational setting.

require accommodations.

assessment can be determined.

condition. Different types of vision loss may include a reduced acuity—or clarity that cannot be corrected with glasses, a field loss—or "blind spots" with a student's field of view, muscle control problems (lazy eye), or problems with perception—for example, a student may see educational materials, but cannot describe or compre-

When a child with a visual impairment is assigned to an inclusive classroom setting, the classroom teacher should always ask about the child's degree of vision loss. Teachers who do not recognize that there are varying degrees of visual impairments may wrongly assume that learning environments need not be visually stimulating; this is especially true in early childhood settings where pictures, color, sight words, and learning centers are used within everyday learning tasks. In settings where the majority of students rely on visual cues, teachers must explore alternative ways to meet the educational needs of their learners with visual impairments, including those with no vision and partial sight. Knowing the degree of a child's vision loss can assist in determining, selecting, and using specialized accommodations needed

In addition to recognizing the individualized degree of vision loss that is present when a child who is identified with a visual impairment is assigned to an inclusive classroom, early childhood educators must also be cognizant of the warning signs of visual impairment in children who are not specifically identified as having a visual impairment prior to attending a formal learning environment. Because the early childhood setting is one of the first formal learning experiences for young children, it is often within this setting that visual impairments are first identified. Because so much of classroom learning occurs through a visual model, it is important for early childhood educators to recognize when a visual impairment may be present. If visual impairments are overlooked, delays in learning can occur for children who

Signs of eye trouble in children may include physical characteristics, behaviors, verbal communications, or trauma to the face or eyes. Physical characteristics may include eyes that are red, inflamed, watery, or off-center. Behaviors may include rubbing, shutting—or covering—one eye for tasks that require vision, tilting of the head when viewing materials, leaning forward to see better, tripping over objects, excessive blinking, or extreme sensitivity to light. Verbal cues may include statements such as, "I can't see that," "I see two of that," (double vision) or complaints of dizziness, headache or nausea [22]. Any of these symptoms, including classroom emergencies where the eye may be affected, should be reported to school health services, administration, and the child's parents and/or guardians so that follow-up

**3. Educational implications of visual impairments on learning**

Planning for the needs of a child with a visual impairment within an inclusive classroom setting may be seen as a challenge, especially if it is the first time that a general education teacher encounters a student who has vision loss. With adequate background knowledge, support, and recognition of the unique needs of these learners, teachers can appropriately plan to meet the needs of students with visual

**3.1 Planning for the needs of students with visual impairments**

**2.3 Recognizing visual impairments in the early childhood classroom**

**288**

impairments.

will learn about the animal in a step-by-step process. A typical learning sequence may include learning about the texture of an elephant's skin, the diameter of his legs or trunk, the weight of the animal, and the environment in which the animal lives; once these "parts" are learned, the "parts" are put together to form a "whole" picture.

Students with visual impairments must *learn through experiences*—*learn by doing*—in order to master a skill. Using the hands as a tool to gather information is needed for children who are learning without the use of sight as their primary sense. Allowing children to explore objects so that they can experience and learn details that are invisible without the use of touch is essential for learning. Allowing children to smell, feel, and move objects using all of their senses, in addition to exploring with their hands, provides multiple inputs for learning. When completing lessons, provide actual objects for the student to touch, hear, smell, and explore. An actual piece of fruit that can be peeled, smelled, and tasted is a much richer experience than looking at a photo or touching a model.

In addition to "part to whole" learning, students with visual impairments sometimes have *fewer natural learning experiences* because they are not able to observe everyday objects and interactions, especially ones that are non-verbal. Areas of learning that can be particularly affected include concept development, interpersonal communication, life skills, and academic development. In accessing the early childhood curriculum and age-appropriate milestones of development, students with visual impairments should be encouraged to complete skills that are beneficial to the growth of positive self-image, appropriate dress, self-care skills, good interpersonal communication, appropriate behaviors, increased independence, and productive community experiences. These skill sets can begin in early childhood with simple, everyday tasks such as tooth brushing, hair combing, dressing, organizing a personal space, and eating.

Classroom teachers should resist urges to treat students with visual impairments differently than their same-aged peers. Encourage self-sufficiency and decision making from an early age. As an early childhood educator, it is easy to want to do things for a child who has a visual impairment, especially if a teacher notes that the child has a slower pace than peers who do not have a vision loss. Children with visual impairments learn best through experience—do not be afraid to give them *extra time to learn and explore*. Remember that a final product is not always as important as the learning process. Early childhood educators should allow students to experience natural learning experiences and classroom exploration that provides students with multiple opportunities for independence and success [26].

#### **3.3 Creating an accessible learning environment**

Because students with visual impairments cannot use their sight as a primary learning medium, they tend to rely on their senses of touch, hearing, smell, taste, movement, and residual vision to gather information from their learning environments. To address this way of learning, early childhood educators must create environments that are engaging and accessible using all senses so that those with visual impairments can learn. Because children are naturally curious, use of universal design in creating leaning environments is beneficial. Use of color, clear-large print sight words, Braille labels, multiple textures, tactile markings, stickers, object cues, and a variety of materials that can be touched are all ways of encouraging students to explore with all of their senses to learn within the classroom setting. Teachers should recognize that alternate teaching materials for students with visual impairments may not always be needed for classroom activities. Many items, such as crayons, blocks, toys, finger paints, putty, musical instruments, recreational

**291**

*Including Children with Visual Impairments in the Early Childhood Classroom*

boards to eliminate unwanted noise can benefit all students.

equipment, or sensory table items, are universal tools that can be used by all students. A learning environment that is well planned is not just beneficial for students with vision loss, but for all learners who are participating in the classroom setting. In addition to using a variety of materials for exploration, there are a variety of factors that can also be considered when planning a learning environment. Proper lighting should be considered, especially for children who have low vision or light sensitivity. Natural lighting diffused throughout a classroom—such as light from windows or overhead lights that point toward the ceiling versus fluorescent lights that point toward the classroom floor—is best for students with light sensitivity. Sound within classrooms can be modified to ensure all students can distinguish work time from free time or play time; use of an FM system or sound reduction

Use of contrast in creating classroom materials can assist all students in distinguishing picture cues and identifying classroom activities. Texture—or tactile additions, such as outlining a picture with school glue and allowing it to dry or placing a screen behind coloring pages—can assist children with no usable vision to access activities that are traditionally concepts that require vision. Finally, once a classroom setting is established, teachers should resist urges to move furniture. Keeping furniture pieces and specific learning areas in their original locations will assist children who have visual impairments with their classroom orientation, movement, and location of desired spaces within an environment. If the furniture is moved, be sure to notify children with visual impairments of changes, allowing them time to explore and become comfortable with their surroundings. This is another example where students with visual impairments will obtain information in a manner that is "part-to-whole," as peers with vision will immediately see changes to a "whole" classroom layout, while a student with vision loss will learn the layout

In addition to learning age-appropriate milestones and subjects established within general education curriculums, students with visual impairments also have unique needs that expand beyond those of other students. Because students with vision loss are *unable to observe the nonverbal behaviors and actions of others*, classroom teachers must recognize that the manner in which incidental skills are learned is impacted by vision loss. In order to teach these incidental skills to students with visual impairments, an *expanded core curriculum (ECC) for students with visual impairments* has been designed to go beyond the core components of math, reading, writing, and science to address essential areas and experiences that are unique to persons with vision loss [26]. The ECC is a curriculum that addresses functional outcomes for students with visual impairments, including nine (9) skill sets that address (a) compensatory (or access) skills, (b) social interaction skills, (c) recreational and leisure skills, (d) orientation and mobility (O&M) skills, (e) independent living skills, (f) assistive technology skills, (g) career education skills,

Although children who are visually impaired have little or no opportunity to learn ECC skills by visual observation alone, they have the opportunity to acquire these skills through sequential, systematic instruction by a *knowledgeable person* [27]. In addressing specific skills identified within the ECC, a team approach to learning is imperative. While early childhood educators are able to understand the basic implications of vision loss on learning and accommodate the basic needs of learners through universal designs and inclusive classrooms, these same teachers need to know they are not alone in determining what is best for students with vision loss.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80928*

in a "step-by-step" manner.

**3.4 The expanded core curriculum**

(h) sensory skills, and (i) self-determination skills.

#### *Including Children with Visual Impairments in the Early Childhood Classroom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80928*

equipment, or sensory table items, are universal tools that can be used by all students. A learning environment that is well planned is not just beneficial for students with vision loss, but for all learners who are participating in the classroom setting.

In addition to using a variety of materials for exploration, there are a variety of factors that can also be considered when planning a learning environment. Proper lighting should be considered, especially for children who have low vision or light sensitivity. Natural lighting diffused throughout a classroom—such as light from windows or overhead lights that point toward the ceiling versus fluorescent lights that point toward the classroom floor—is best for students with light sensitivity. Sound within classrooms can be modified to ensure all students can distinguish work time from free time or play time; use of an FM system or sound reduction boards to eliminate unwanted noise can benefit all students.

Use of contrast in creating classroom materials can assist all students in distinguishing picture cues and identifying classroom activities. Texture—or tactile additions, such as outlining a picture with school glue and allowing it to dry or placing a screen behind coloring pages—can assist children with no usable vision to access activities that are traditionally concepts that require vision. Finally, once a classroom setting is established, teachers should resist urges to move furniture. Keeping furniture pieces and specific learning areas in their original locations will assist children who have visual impairments with their classroom orientation, movement, and location of desired spaces within an environment. If the furniture is moved, be sure to notify children with visual impairments of changes, allowing them time to explore and become comfortable with their surroundings. This is another example where students with visual impairments will obtain information in a manner that is "part-to-whole," as peers with vision will immediately see changes to a "whole" classroom layout, while a student with vision loss will learn the layout in a "step-by-step" manner.

#### **3.4 The expanded core curriculum**

In addition to learning age-appropriate milestones and subjects established within general education curriculums, students with visual impairments also have unique needs that expand beyond those of other students. Because students with vision loss are *unable to observe the nonverbal behaviors and actions of others*, classroom teachers must recognize that the manner in which incidental skills are learned is impacted by vision loss. In order to teach these incidental skills to students with visual impairments, an *expanded core curriculum (ECC) for students with visual impairments* has been designed to go beyond the core components of math, reading, writing, and science to address essential areas and experiences that are unique to persons with vision loss [26]. The ECC is a curriculum that addresses functional outcomes for students with visual impairments, including nine (9) skill sets that address (a) compensatory (or access) skills, (b) social interaction skills, (c) recreational and leisure skills, (d) orientation and mobility (O&M) skills, (e) independent living skills, (f) assistive technology skills, (g) career education skills, (h) sensory skills, and (i) self-determination skills.

Although children who are visually impaired have little or no opportunity to learn ECC skills by visual observation alone, they have the opportunity to acquire these skills through sequential, systematic instruction by a *knowledgeable person* [27]. In addressing specific skills identified within the ECC, a team approach to learning is imperative. While early childhood educators are able to understand the basic implications of vision loss on learning and accommodate the basic needs of learners through universal designs and inclusive classrooms, these same teachers need to know they are not alone in determining what is best for students with vision loss.

*Early Childhood Education*

picture.

will learn about the animal in a step-by-step process. A typical learning sequence may include learning about the texture of an elephant's skin, the diameter of his legs or trunk, the weight of the animal, and the environment in which the animal lives; once these "parts" are learned, the "parts" are put together to form a "whole"

Students with visual impairments must *learn through experiences*—*learn by doing*—in order to master a skill. Using the hands as a tool to gather information is needed for children who are learning without the use of sight as their primary sense. Allowing children to explore objects so that they can experience and learn details that are invisible without the use of touch is essential for learning. Allowing children to smell, feel, and move objects using all of their senses, in addition to exploring with their hands, provides multiple inputs for learning. When completing lessons, provide actual objects for the student to touch, hear, smell, and explore. An actual piece of fruit that can be peeled, smelled, and tasted is a much richer experi-

In addition to "part to whole" learning, students with visual impairments sometimes have *fewer natural learning experiences* because they are not able to observe everyday objects and interactions, especially ones that are non-verbal. Areas of learning that can be particularly affected include concept development, interpersonal communication, life skills, and academic development. In accessing the early childhood curriculum and age-appropriate milestones of development, students with visual impairments should be encouraged to complete skills that are beneficial to the growth of positive self-image, appropriate dress, self-care skills, good interpersonal communication, appropriate behaviors, increased independence, and productive community experiences. These skill sets can begin in early childhood with simple, everyday tasks such as tooth brushing, hair combing, dressing, orga-

Classroom teachers should resist urges to treat students with visual impairments

differently than their same-aged peers. Encourage self-sufficiency and decision making from an early age. As an early childhood educator, it is easy to want to do things for a child who has a visual impairment, especially if a teacher notes that the child has a slower pace than peers who do not have a vision loss. Children with visual impairments learn best through experience—do not be afraid to give them *extra time to learn and explore*. Remember that a final product is not always as important as the learning process. Early childhood educators should allow students to experience natural learning experiences and classroom exploration that provides

students with multiple opportunities for independence and success [26].

Because students with visual impairments cannot use their sight as a primary learning medium, they tend to rely on their senses of touch, hearing, smell, taste, movement, and residual vision to gather information from their learning environments. To address this way of learning, early childhood educators must create environments that are engaging and accessible using all senses so that those with visual impairments can learn. Because children are naturally curious, use of universal design in creating leaning environments is beneficial. Use of color, clear-large print sight words, Braille labels, multiple textures, tactile markings, stickers, object cues, and a variety of materials that can be touched are all ways of encouraging students to explore with all of their senses to learn within the classroom setting. Teachers should recognize that alternate teaching materials for students with visual impairments may not always be needed for classroom activities. Many items, such as crayons, blocks, toys, finger paints, putty, musical instruments, recreational

**3.3 Creating an accessible learning environment**

ence than looking at a photo or touching a model.

nizing a personal space, and eating.

**290**

There are educational *specialists who are specifically trained to work directly with students who have visual impairments*. In addition to working directly with students, these specialists also work with teachers, administrators, and families, to create individualized plans designed to meet the unique needs of students with vision loss. Early childhood educators who have children with visual impairments placed within their classroom settings can request the services of a teacher of students with visual impairments (TVI) and an orientation and mobility (O&M) specialist to assist with accessibility, technology, and ECC skill sets that go beyond typical classroom protocols.
