**3. Capital-/asset-based approach in teaching and learning of mathematics**

Refs. [24, 32, 33] have proven that young students have demonstrated that they have high capabilities in mathematics regardless of their socio-economic background, ethnicity and geographical origins. These researchers propose the use of students' capital/assets in nurturing mathematics knowledge. Capital/asset refers to their ways of knowing and communicating and experiences that are mathematical and have been ignored. Ref. [34] indicates that there are diverse mathematical experiences from different cultures that nurture mathematics in early ages. Some cultures develop spatial reasoning first through hunting, while others develop measurement concepts through construction, and others develop diverse concepts through games, etc. If this is the case, tapping into these diverse mathematical experiences and heritage is more capacitating for students from these cultures. It develops ownership of mathematical knowledge and allows for more creation and activity. Ref. [35] argues that drawing knowledge from the students' languages and cultural-rich knowledge when teaching them creates healthy nurturing learning environments. Such environments will create spaces where mathematical creation of knowledge belongs to all, and the disadvantaged groups of students will take active participation in such creation and bring forth diverse-rich innovations in mathematics. This chapter focuses on exploring the cultural capital of Xhosa students in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. While doing so it also presents the mathematics embedded in the cultural games explored.

A lot of research has been conducted under ethnomathematics trying to find cultural experiences with mathematics. However, mathematics knowledge was not exposed, and that resulted in integration that had some flaws. The focus was the cultural practices than the mathematics embedded in them [17]. Teacher empowerment becomes very important in understanding play with a purpose. Games are fun and occupy students longer developing their concentration abilities; they need structure and reflection. Amount of skills and knowledge attained from them has

*Early Childhood Education*

**2.2 Racial exclusion**

their esteem and pride of their home languages too.

has created teachers who are not proficient in any language as their home languages were never used as cultural capital. Research cannot only focus on students when addressing language proficiencies; teachers also need intervention that can develop

Ref. [19] asserts that race is overlooked when discussing challenges observed in mathematics performance. This paper supports this assertion by supporting it with empirical evidence. For example, South Africa started participating in the TIMSS study in 1999 observing the trends of reporting the challenges of poor performance that were aligned with disadvantage learners, overcrowded classrooms and lack of resources [20]. However, revisiting these findings the students who were in overcrowded classrooms, disadvantaged and in schools with no resources were all black. The next trend of reporting this participation again highlights inequities and lack of foundational knowledge due to poor early mathematics exposure [21]. Again who were the learners who were mostly affected by the inequities, who lack foundational knowledge and also are exposed to poor mathematics instruction? The response is again black students. The 2011 and 2015 TIMSS findings did not bring anything different; although again race is not mentioned, the same black students are the ones who continue to perform poorly. Ref. [22] argue that within mathematics learning and research, there is a silent privilege that needs to be exposed. Critical race theory unravels and unpacks how white privilege continues to close access and opportunities to those who are non-white. Also it unravels how this privilege prevails through entitlement and unfounded generalisations that align whiteness automatically with success. In the context of South Africa, research is taking too slow in unravelling racial issues that are highly embedded on educational practices including methodologies used to address educational issues. South Africa has top performing students in the National Certificate that come from low social backgrounds studying in under- or unsourced schools. However, these students repeatedly demonstrate that resilience is innate to them and therefore poverty, and discrimination cannot impede their performance. Research needs to tap on these students' traits and learn from them the qualities that they possess to be able to nurture other students from similar

Therefore, this racial exclusion demands more research to be conducted. This paper will only contribute by exposing black children's cultural games that have potential to nurture and influence black learners' identities within mathematics learning and experiences. By doing this it is encouraging more exploration of cultural artefacts and practices that influence mathematical growth and thinking.

Students reject a school science that is disconnected from their own lives, a deper-

sonalized science, where there is no space for themselves and their ideas (p. 13). The UNESCO [23] shared the above quote with the aim of asserting educators and researchers that scientific knowledge that does not align with one's experiences and thought has no place in students' conceptualization of the world they want to conquer. The global community faces challenges of attrition of scientists due to the fact that only the elite and the haves receive quality stimulation, while the majority who lives under poor socio-economic situation are deprived from such experiences. Socio-economic variable has rooted itself in the centre to obstruct or allow quality mathematics experiences. Internationally, research has revealed how the socio-economic variable plays a significant role in the provision of quality

**154**

backgrounds.

**2.3 Economic exclusion**

to be assessed and evaluated. Some games allow for developmental levels and that needs to be integrated in the games played in the classroom. Games develop interest and pleasure to students something that lacks in current classrooms.

This chapter contributes in bringing fourth cultural games into the learning and teaching of mathematical concepts in the classroom and proposes that researchers use these games in their interventions.
