**2. Emergent reading**

#### **2.1 What is emergent reading?**

The term "emergent reading" is derived from "emergent literacy" and is used to advocate that the development of reading starts early in a child's life instead of school years. The emergent literacy includes both reading and writing components. The concept "emergent reading" emphasizes the developmental continuum aspect in learning to read, rather than an all-or-none phenomenon that begins only when a child starts school, suggesting there is a boundary between reading and prereading. For example, over the years, educators focused on identifying what skills a

child needs to understand before he/she can learn to read through a formal reading curriculum. In contrast, an emergent reading perspective views reading-related behaviors occurring before school as essential aspects of reading. Besides, an emergent reading perspective views that language and reading develop concurrently and interdependently from an early age when children were exposed to social interactions in which reading is a component, and no formal instruction was involved.

Emergent reading consists of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are presumed to be developmental precursors to conventional forms of reading [1, 3] and the environments supporting these developments (e.g., home literacy environment, shared book reading, etc.).

#### **2.2 Components of emergent reading**

Based on the literature, the main components of emergent reading include vocabulary knowledge, decontextualized language skills, conventions of print, knowledge of letters, linguistic awareness, and phoneme-grapheme correspondence.

**Vocabulary knowledge** is important in emergent reading. Reading requires decoding of visual inputs into meaning. In the earliest stages, a child decodes a word letter by letter, links each letter into its corresponding sound, and combines all the letter-sounds to a single word. For example, in the beginning, a child decodes a word "cat" by sounding out /k/ … /æ/ … /t/. The next stage is to extract the meaning of the word, which is important since it motivates the child. If a child knows individual letters but does not know the meaning, he/she is unlikely enjoying the reading process since the child has no semantic representation through which a child decodes the phonological information. Research studies have shown that semantic and syntactic abilities play important roles in acquiring reading skills when the child is reading for meaning [4, 5]. A recent study investigated the relationship between semantic knowledge and word reading in 27 6-year-old children [4]. General semantic knowledge was assessed using standardized tasks in which children defined words and made judgments about the relationships between words. They have provided strong evidence that variation in semantic knowledge is associated with variation in word-reading performance.

**Decontextualized language skills** refer to the language used in story narratives and other written forms of communications to convey novel information to readers [3]. **Conventions of print** in English include the left-to-right and top-to-bottom direction of print, the sequence in which the print progresses from front to back across pages, the difference between pictures and print on a page, and the meaning of elements of punctuation. Knowing these conventions helps a child learn to read [3]. Decontextualized language skills in children are related to conventional reading skills including decoding, understanding story narratives, and print production [6].

**Knowledge of letters** is critical to learning the sounds associated with the letters. However, only teaching letter names may only increase surface letter knowledge and may not improve the abilities to learn to read [7]. Linguistic awareness involves the ability to take language as a cognitive object and to understand how language is constructed and to use language as a way of communication. Linguistic awareness develops over time, and a child may be aware of some rules (e.g., that words are formed from phonemes) without being aware of other rules (e.g., two words rhyme). Many studies have suggested that children good at detecting syllables and rhymes are better readers [8].

**Linguistic awareness** involves the ability to take language as a cognitive object and to possess information about the syntax. Most research on linguistic awareness has focused on phonological skills (e.g., phoneme isolation, phoneme deletion, etc.).

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**2.4 Socioeconomic status**

*Emergent Reading and Brain Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82423*

levels of reading achievement [10, 15].

**2.3 Environments supporting emergent reading**

The relation appears to be reciprocal. Better phonological skills led to quicker learning to read [9–12], while learning to read improves phonological skills [13, 14].

Children learn these main components of emergent reading before formal schooling. These components are the building blocks that a child needs to learn to read. Becoming a fluent reader requires all these components, which can be divided into two interdependent sets of skills and processes. They are the process of decoding and comprehension. The process of decoding needs children's knowledge of rules for translating letters to sounds and sounds to words, while the process of comprehension needs children to find meanings for the words. Both are essential processes for reading. Difficulties in either process can lead to reading impairments.

Home literacy environment has been suggested to positively correlate to preschooler's language abilities [16, 17]. Home literacy environment characterizes the literacy-related interactions and resources at home, including shared book reading between parents and children (e.g., frequency, duration) and exposure to literacy materials (e.g., how many books at home, types of books). The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) advocates reading aloud to children every day, beginning from birth [18]. The AAP early literacy policy released in June 2014 urges pediatricians and policymakers to ensure that books are available to all families, particularly those with low income [18]. High et al. recommends that parents focus on the following activity: read together, rhyme and play with words, set consistent routines, reward with praise, and develop a strong relationship with the child [18]. Shared reading between parents and children can strengthen bonding and improve language skills and vocabulary knowledge. Dialogic reading, known as a shared picture book reading intervention for preschoolers, has been suggested to boost the preschooler's language abilities [19–21]. Moreover, the new understanding of brain development through neuroimaging studies has also suggested that the first 1000 days are the crucial developmental stage for later cognitive development. Children's daycare and preschool environments are important for children's emergent reading experience [3]. Studies have identified that aspects of the curriculum, the environment, teach-child interactions, and teaching practices within the classroom are related to the cognitive ability and achievement of children [22]. When controlling for home literacy environment, children's daycare and preschool environments still predict children's cognitive and academic achievement scores.

School readiness refers to a mismatch between what many children bring to their first school experience and what schools expect of them if they are to succeed and is strongly linked to family income [3]. Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the strongest predictors of performance differences in children at the beginning of first grade [23]. Differences in SES could lead to differences in emergent reading experiences (e.g., language exposure at home, family stress, cognitive stimulation) that likely shape the early development of brain regions that are crucial for becoming a skilled reader [24, 25]. Children from low SES are at risk for DD and are also more likely to be slow in learning to read [26]. Moreover, Matthew effects in reading demonstrated that a child is a disadvantaged organism because of the low SES and

**Phoneme-grapheme correspondence** represents the links between phonemes and alphabet letters. A child requires to understand both how individual letter sounds and how combined letters sound. This ability has been related to higher

#### *Emergent Reading and Brain Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82423*

*Early Childhood Education*

shared book reading, etc.).

correspondence.

**2.2 Components of emergent reading**

child needs to understand before he/she can learn to read through a formal reading curriculum. In contrast, an emergent reading perspective views reading-related behaviors occurring before school as essential aspects of reading. Besides, an emergent reading perspective views that language and reading develop concurrently and interdependently from an early age when children were exposed to social interactions in which reading is a component, and no formal instruction was involved. Emergent reading consists of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are presumed to be developmental precursors to conventional forms of reading [1, 3] and the environments supporting these developments (e.g., home literacy environment,

Based on the literature, the main components of emergent reading include

**Vocabulary knowledge** is important in emergent reading. Reading requires decoding of visual inputs into meaning. In the earliest stages, a child decodes a word letter by letter, links each letter into its corresponding sound, and combines all the letter-sounds to a single word. For example, in the beginning, a child decodes a word "cat" by sounding out /k/ … /æ/ … /t/. The next stage is to extract the meaning of the word, which is important since it motivates the child. If a child knows individual letters but does not know the meaning, he/she is unlikely enjoying the reading process since the child has no semantic representation through which a child decodes the phonological information. Research studies have shown that semantic and syntactic abilities play important roles in acquiring reading skills when the child is reading for meaning [4, 5]. A recent study investigated the relationship between semantic knowledge and word reading in 27 6-year-old children [4]. General semantic knowledge was assessed using standardized tasks in which children defined words and made judgments about the relationships between words. They have provided strong evidence that variation in semantic knowledge is

**Decontextualized language skills** refer to the language used in story narratives and other written forms of communications to convey novel information to readers [3]. **Conventions of print** in English include the left-to-right and top-to-bottom direction of print, the sequence in which the print progresses from front to back across pages, the difference between pictures and print on a page, and the meaning of elements of punctuation. Knowing these conventions helps a child learn to read [3]. Decontextualized language skills in children are related to conventional reading skills including decoding,

**Knowledge of letters** is critical to learning the sounds associated with the letters. However, only teaching letter names may only increase surface letter knowledge and may not improve the abilities to learn to read [7]. Linguistic awareness involves the ability to take language as a cognitive object and to understand how language is constructed and to use language as a way of communication. Linguistic awareness develops over time, and a child may be aware of some rules (e.g., that words are formed from phonemes) without being aware of other rules (e.g., two words rhyme). Many studies have suggested that children good at detecting syl-

**Linguistic awareness** involves the ability to take language as a cognitive object and to possess information about the syntax. Most research on linguistic awareness has focused on phonological skills (e.g., phoneme isolation, phoneme deletion, etc.).

vocabulary knowledge, decontextualized language skills, conventions of print, knowledge of letters, linguistic awareness, and phoneme-grapheme

associated with variation in word-reading performance.

understanding story narratives, and print production [6].

lables and rhymes are better readers [8].

**224**

The relation appears to be reciprocal. Better phonological skills led to quicker learning to read [9–12], while learning to read improves phonological skills [13, 14].

**Phoneme-grapheme correspondence** represents the links between phonemes and alphabet letters. A child requires to understand both how individual letter sounds and how combined letters sound. This ability has been related to higher levels of reading achievement [10, 15].

Children learn these main components of emergent reading before formal schooling. These components are the building blocks that a child needs to learn to read. Becoming a fluent reader requires all these components, which can be divided into two interdependent sets of skills and processes. They are the process of decoding and comprehension. The process of decoding needs children's knowledge of rules for translating letters to sounds and sounds to words, while the process of comprehension needs children to find meanings for the words. Both are essential processes for reading. Difficulties in either process can lead to reading impairments.

#### **2.3 Environments supporting emergent reading**

Home literacy environment has been suggested to positively correlate to preschooler's language abilities [16, 17]. Home literacy environment characterizes the literacy-related interactions and resources at home, including shared book reading between parents and children (e.g., frequency, duration) and exposure to literacy materials (e.g., how many books at home, types of books). The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) advocates reading aloud to children every day, beginning from birth [18]. The AAP early literacy policy released in June 2014 urges pediatricians and policymakers to ensure that books are available to all families, particularly those with low income [18]. High et al. recommends that parents focus on the following activity: read together, rhyme and play with words, set consistent routines, reward with praise, and develop a strong relationship with the child [18]. Shared reading between parents and children can strengthen bonding and improve language skills and vocabulary knowledge. Dialogic reading, known as a shared picture book reading intervention for preschoolers, has been suggested to boost the preschooler's language abilities [19–21]. Moreover, the new understanding of brain development through neuroimaging studies has also suggested that the first 1000 days are the crucial developmental stage for later cognitive development.

Children's daycare and preschool environments are important for children's emergent reading experience [3]. Studies have identified that aspects of the curriculum, the environment, teach-child interactions, and teaching practices within the classroom are related to the cognitive ability and achievement of children [22]. When controlling for home literacy environment, children's daycare and preschool environments still predict children's cognitive and academic achievement scores.

#### **2.4 Socioeconomic status**

School readiness refers to a mismatch between what many children bring to their first school experience and what schools expect of them if they are to succeed and is strongly linked to family income [3]. Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the strongest predictors of performance differences in children at the beginning of first grade [23]. Differences in SES could lead to differences in emergent reading experiences (e.g., language exposure at home, family stress, cognitive stimulation) that likely shape the early development of brain regions that are crucial for becoming a skilled reader [24, 25]. Children from low SES are at risk for DD and are also more likely to be slow in learning to read [26]. Moreover, Matthew effects in reading demonstrated that a child is a disadvantaged organism because of the low SES and

genotype provided by the child's parents [27]. Many students with low SES entering school are significantly behind their more advantaged peers with high SES, and the academic performance gap widens over the course of elementary school [28, 29]. Children from families with different SES exposure to different experiences that support the development of emergent reading skills. Mothers from lower SES groups engaged in fewer teaching behaviors during shared reading than mothers from middle-class groups [30, 31].

#### **2.5 Interventions to enhance emergent reading experiences**

Various interventions targeting one or more components of emergent reading have been developed including dialogic reading, little books, phonological sensitivity training, and whole language instruction.

Dialogic reading is a program of shared picture book reading intervention for preschoolers, and it can substantially improve a child's language skills in preschool [19, 32–34]. Dialogic reading is different from the conventional shared reading during which the adult reads and the child listens. During dialogic reading, the child learns to become a storyteller, while the adult acts as an active listener, asking questions and prompting the child to increase the sophistication of descriptions of the material in the picture book.

Little books are small, easy-to-read books that contain simple words, simple illustrations, and repetitive text. Studies have shown that giving free little books to children from family with low and middle incomes facilitates better emergent reading experience and supports better reading outcomes [35–37].

Phonological sensitivity training is to teach children phonological sensitivity, which is one of the strongest predictors of later reading achievement. Interventions on phonological sensitivity training have been shown to be effective in beginning readers [38–40].

Whole language instruction focuses on the reading components including language units (e.g., words), semantic units (e.g., concepts), and contextual units (e.g., narrative) [41, 42]. Whole language approach advocates that there are strong parallel between the reading acquisition and oral language acquisition and believes that reading acquisition would occur as easily and naturally as language acquisition if the meaning and purpose of the text were emphasized. However, there is ongoing debate on whether whole language emphasis is effective approach [43]. More research is necessary to resolve this debate. Whole language is currently controversial approach to teach reading.

## **3. Behavior and brain connection**

If cognitive behaviors are the immediate results of our brain states, then the most effective way of uncovering a cognitive behavior is to understand the brain states that would lead to it. Brain states are determined by the organization of synaptic connections between neurons that generate various patterns of activations. Thus, brain imaging can provide insights into the neural basis that would lead to the certain cognitive behavior.

When a child learns to read, he/she is more likely to show reading-related activity in the region of occipitotemporal cortex [44–47]. Two decades ago, brain research has suggested that the socioeconomic status (SES) modulates brainbehavior relationships in reading [25]. Specifically, as SES levels decreased, the relationship between the phonological language skill and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data was stronger, whereas as SES levels increased, these

**227**

**Figure 1.**

*green: superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF).*

*Emergent Reading and Brain Development DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82423*

continuum aspect of learning to read.

**4. Brain imaging evidence**

ments and neuroimaging data.

brain-behavior relationships were attenuated [25]. Thus, a child's background and life experiences, as determined by SES, can systematically influence the relationship between emergent reading skills and reading-related brain activity. To better understand the importance of emergent reading experience, brain imaging evidence will be used to demonstrate the underlying neural basis supporting the developmental

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques make it possible to identify the brain-based factors that facilitate successful reading outcomes. Importantly, brain imaging may provide innovative solutions to improve education curriculums and

Over the last decades, neuroimaging studies focused on identifying brain markers that are the cause of dyslexia (see reviews: [48, 49]). Although researchers are far from concluding that the brain markers causing dyslexia, we have learned about the neural basis of reading acquisition. For instance, a left-lateralized brain network, including temporoparietal and occipitotemporal cortices, is critical to facilitate skilled reading [50, 51] (see **Figure 1**). High white matter integrity in accurate fasciculus (AF) predicts better reading outcomes in children at risk for dyslexia [52]. AF is a tract connecting Broca's area and Wernicke's area, related to reading ability [53–55] (see **Figure 1**). If neuroimaging measures can identify children at risk for reading difficulties before they even start to learn to read in school, early emergent reading interventions can be applied to help them overcome the risk of developing reading difficulties in school years. Only a limited number of studies have specifically investigated the relationship between emergent reading environ-

Hutton et al. used StimQ-P questionnaire [56] to quantify the cognitive simulation at home and identified that functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data during a storying comprehension task presented stronger activity for those children with higher StimQ-P Reading scores [57]. They reported that higher StimQ Reading scores were associated with stronger activation in occipital cortices, including lateral occipital gyrus and precuneus, which can be attributed to mental imagery evoked during story listening [58]. Their study sample includes nineteen 3- to 5-year-old children from a longitudinal study of healthy brain development. In preschool children listening to stories, greater home reading exposure was positively related to activation of left posterior occipital fusiform, lateral occipital, posterior inferior temporal, posterior middle temporal, posterior cingulate, and angular gyri and left precuneus (household income is controlled). Their finding suggests that

*Brain regions and white matter tracts related to reading on a 3D rendered brain. Red: accurate fasciculus (AF),* 

lead to improvements in reading results in young children.

from middle-class groups [30, 31].

the material in the picture book.

sial approach to teach reading.

certain cognitive behavior.

**3. Behavior and brain connection**

readers [38–40].

ity training, and whole language instruction.

**2.5 Interventions to enhance emergent reading experiences**

genotype provided by the child's parents [27]. Many students with low SES entering school are significantly behind their more advantaged peers with high SES, and the academic performance gap widens over the course of elementary school [28, 29]. Children from families with different SES exposure to different experiences that support the development of emergent reading skills. Mothers from lower SES groups engaged in fewer teaching behaviors during shared reading than mothers

Various interventions targeting one or more components of emergent reading have been developed including dialogic reading, little books, phonological sensitiv-

Dialogic reading is a program of shared picture book reading intervention for preschoolers, and it can substantially improve a child's language skills in preschool [19, 32–34]. Dialogic reading is different from the conventional shared reading during which the adult reads and the child listens. During dialogic reading, the child learns to become a storyteller, while the adult acts as an active listener, asking questions and prompting the child to increase the sophistication of descriptions of

Little books are small, easy-to-read books that contain simple words, simple illustrations, and repetitive text. Studies have shown that giving free little books to children from family with low and middle incomes facilitates better emergent

Phonological sensitivity training is to teach children phonological sensitivity, which is one of the strongest predictors of later reading achievement. Interventions on phonological sensitivity training have been shown to be effective in beginning

Whole language instruction focuses on the reading components including language units (e.g., words), semantic units (e.g., concepts), and contextual units (e.g., narrative) [41, 42]. Whole language approach advocates that there are strong parallel between the reading acquisition and oral language acquisition and believes that reading acquisition would occur as easily and naturally as language acquisition if the meaning and purpose of the text were emphasized. However, there is ongoing debate on whether whole language emphasis is effective approach [43]. More research is necessary to resolve this debate. Whole language is currently controver-

If cognitive behaviors are the immediate results of our brain states, then the most effective way of uncovering a cognitive behavior is to understand the brain states that would lead to it. Brain states are determined by the organization of synaptic connections between neurons that generate various patterns of activations. Thus, brain imaging can provide insights into the neural basis that would lead to the

When a child learns to read, he/she is more likely to show reading-related activity in the region of occipitotemporal cortex [44–47]. Two decades ago, brain research has suggested that the socioeconomic status (SES) modulates brainbehavior relationships in reading [25]. Specifically, as SES levels decreased, the relationship between the phonological language skill and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data was stronger, whereas as SES levels increased, these

reading experience and supports better reading outcomes [35–37].

**226**

brain-behavior relationships were attenuated [25]. Thus, a child's background and life experiences, as determined by SES, can systematically influence the relationship between emergent reading skills and reading-related brain activity. To better understand the importance of emergent reading experience, brain imaging evidence will be used to demonstrate the underlying neural basis supporting the developmental continuum aspect of learning to read.
