2. Predictors of early numeracy performance

#### 2.1 Phonological awareness

Children's recognition of and facility in using the units of sound that compose language, for example syllables and root words, is called phonological awareness. Phonological awareness is predictive of both children's reading performance [14] and early mathematical performance [15, 16]. How well phonological awareness predicts later mathematical performance varies with task difficulty. For example, both Krajewski and Schnieder [6] and Michalczyk et al. [17] report that phonological awareness directly influenced children's learning of the sequence of number words, but Cirino [18] found it only indirectly influenced more advanced use of number words and small sum addition. In contrast, other researchers have found that phonological awareness is not a better predictor of children's mathematics achievement than other linguistic skills, working memory skills, or counting skills [19, 20]. Given the variability in the research literature the nature and strength of the relationship between phonological awareness and number skills is still in question.

#### 2.2 Executive functioning

The processes and skills that are often classified under the executive functioning umbrella include (a) working memory, (b) ability to shift attention, and (c) ability to focus attention (inhibition control) when planning, solving problems, and acting out goal-directed thoughts [21–23]. Clements et al. [21] suggest that early mathematics influences executive functioning and executive functioning influences early mathematics. If this is the case activities that promote acquisition of early number skills are likely also to promote executive functioning and vice versa.

#### 2.3 Working memory

Working memory is one of the components of executive functioning. However, it is of particular interest because there is evidence that different types of working memory have specific connections to young children's mathematics performance. Rasmussen and Bisanz [24] separated working memory into 3 components and demonstrated that visual and spatial working memory predicted performance on

#### Predictors of Early Numeracy: Applied Measures in Two Childcare Contexts DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81065

nonverbal arithmetic problems for preschool children. For children in first grade phonological (verbal) working memory was the best predictor of performance on verbal arithmetic problems. In some cases, researchers have included both measures of phonological awareness and working memory and found that each has a unique relationship with number skills. Kleemans, Segers, and Verhoeven [25] found that general intelligence, phonological awareness and grammatical ability were correlated with the operations of addition and subtraction while the working memory measures, including repeating words and sentences and reproducing a visual representation with blocks, were related to subtraction.

On the other hand, some researchers have found no effects or limited effects of phonological awareness on mathematics ability when working memory measures were included. Passolunghi et al. [19] found that working memory and counting predicted first-grade children's performance on a mathematics achievement test, but measures of phonological awareness were not significant predictors.

#### 3. The current study

significant adults in preschool children's lives. For example, parents downplay the role of early mathematics skills and emphasize the importance of preschool children's linguistic skills over their mathematics skills [8] as do family home care

Executive functioning is another influence on children's academic performance, including mathematics and reading [11, 12]. Executive functioning skills are those that direct problem solving and help regulate behavior and are more predictive of

Given the importance of children's early mathematics skills to their later mathematics achievement [5] and the strong likelihood that early childhood educators can positively influence young children's mathematical development [10] we were interested in examining the predictive relationship of linguistic skills and executive functioning on young children's mathematics performance. Because in the early years much of the research has focused on young children's number skills we will do the same, while recognizing that mathematics includes more than numeracy.

Children's recognition of and facility in using the units of sound that compose language, for example syllables and root words, is called phonological awareness. Phonological awareness is predictive of both children's reading performance [14] and early mathematical performance [15, 16]. How well phonological awareness predicts later mathematical performance varies with task difficulty. For example, both Krajewski and Schnieder [6] and Michalczyk et al. [17] report that phonological awareness directly influenced children's learning of the sequence of number words, but Cirino [18] found it only indirectly influenced more advanced use of number words and small sum addition. In contrast, other researchers have found that phonological awareness is not a better predictor of children's mathematics achievement than other linguistic skills, working memory skills, or counting skills [19, 20]. Given the variability in the research literature the nature and strength of the relationship between phonological awareness and number skills is still in

The processes and skills that are often classified under the executive functioning umbrella include (a) working memory, (b) ability to shift attention, and (c) ability to focus attention (inhibition control) when planning, solving problems, and acting out goal-directed thoughts [21–23]. Clements et al. [21] suggest that early mathematics influences executive functioning and executive functioning influences early mathematics. If this is the case activities that promote acquisition of early number

Working memory is one of the components of executive functioning. However, it is of particular interest because there is evidence that different types of working memory have specific connections to young children's mathematics performance. Rasmussen and Bisanz [24] separated working memory into 3 components and demonstrated that visual and spatial working memory predicted performance on

skills are likely also to promote executive functioning and vice versa.

providers, [9] and teachers of preschool children [10].

2. Predictors of early numeracy performance

2.1 Phonological awareness

Early Childhood Education

question.

134

2.2 Executive functioning

2.3 Working memory

academic success than intelligence tests [13].

Much of the current research indicates that both phonological awareness and executive functioning measures, including working memory, predict young children's performance on number tasks. If we can demonstrate that one or both support young children's number skills we can make recommendations about appropriate curriculum and home activities. Therefore, one purpose of the current study was to identify the best predictors of early numeracy performance when parent- and teacher-rated executive function, phonological (verbal) working memory, linguistic skills (receptive language), and phonological awareness are included.

We included a measure of receptive language, which assesses children's understanding of the meaning of language rather than their ability to produce it, because it is possible that children's understanding of the meaning of language is more influential on their number skills than their use and recognition of language sounds (phonological awareness). Although Austin et al. [26] found receptive language predicted children's early number skills they also found this result was likely due to the influence of phonological awareness. In this study we included measures of executive functioning to provide a more stringent test of the influence of phonological awareness.

Many of the measures we used in this study were based on regularly occurring activities in the preschool classroom and home environments. The BRIEF-P [22] is composed of ratings by parents and teachers and was used to assess executive functioning. Executive functioning skills may be enhanced through practice [11, 21] making it even more authentic to assess them in the home and childcare environments where most practice likely takes place. Due to the many connections between phonological (verbal) working memory and mathematical performance [19, 24] we also included a second measure of phonological working memory, the repetition of words and non-words [27].

The PALS (Phonological Literacy Screening) [28] has multiple tasks covering literacy skills that are often taught in preschool settings. If this more ecological measure of phonological awareness is related to young children's early number skills then it would provide the type of information that could assist educators in creating a streamlined curriculum where mutually supportive concepts are taught [29].

Another purpose of the study was to examine the influence of type of caregiving environment. Many children are in out-of-home care, either center care or family childcare. Significant differences have been found between care types regarding school readiness scores (e.g., [26]), caregiver behavior, and the caregiving

environment (e.g., [30]). It is unclear whether skills develop differently for children in separate types of childcare. As a result, we wanted to know if the relationships among the measures in this study would differ between setting since their caregiving environments may provide different support for learning number skills.

4.1.3 Caregivers

(NAEYC).

(NAFCC).

4.2 Measures

4.2.1 Parent and caregiver measures

ability (parents: 0.90; caregivers: 0.88).

alphas range from 0.75 to 0.93.

137

4.2.2 Individually administered child measures

Thirty center and family childcare programs were approached about participat-

The 8 family childcare programs that participated averaged 12.25 years (range: 4–24 years) in operation and the average career ladder level was 8.5 (range: 6–10). Three programs were accredited by the National Association for Family Child Care

Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P): The BRIEF-P [22], is an age- and gender-normed clinical measure designed to be completed by the child's parent/guardian and/or out-of-home caregiver, with 63 questions distilling to five subscales: Inhibit, Emotional Control, Shift, Working Memory, and Planning and Organizing. Each subscale has a summary score, with higher scores indicating more concerns about behavior. Gioia et al. [22] reported internal consistency for the composite score (parents: 0.95; caregivers: 0.97), correlation between parents and caregivers (r = 0.17, p < 0.01), and test-retest reli-

Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening, Pre-K (PALS): PALS [28] is an assessment of phonological awareness in eight areas: name writing, upper-case and lower-case alphabet recognition, letter sounds, beginning sound awareness, print and word awareness, rhyme awareness, and nursery rhyme awareness. Cronbach's

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Third Edition (PPVT-III): The PPVT-III [31] measures receptive vocabulary abilities for children as young as 2 years 6 months old. Children are shown four pictures simultaneously and asked which picture best represents a certain word. Reported split-half reliability is 0.94. Test of Early Mathematics Ability, Third Edition, Form B (TEMA-3): The TEMA-3 [32] is an assessment of children's verbal and nonverbal numerical knowledge (age: 36–107 months), with items for young children (e.g., nonverbal problem solving, counting small numbers of objects, cardinality, etc.) and for older children (e.g., writing single-digit numerals, simple word problems, magnitude comparisons, etc.). Reliability (0.80–0.90) and criterion validity correlations with other

Phonological Working Memory: Two direct, verbal assessments of children's phonological working memory were used, each with five one-, two-, and threesyllable words, for a total of fifteen real words and fifteen non-words [27]. Hereafter, the real words measure will be referred to as the real words repetition task and the made-up words measure will be referred to as the non-words repetition task.

norm-referenced mathematics scales (0.54–0.91) have been reported.

ing in the study: 77% agreed to participate. The children that met participation criteria were from the three childcare centers and eight of the 20 family childcare programs. The three childcare centers that participated averaged almost 30 years (range: 2–81 years) in operation, the average capacity was 90 children (range: 45– 173), and the average career ladder level was 6.33 (range: 0–10), 10 being the highest possible, with level determined by training participation. One center was accredited by the National Association for the Education of Young Children

Predictors of Early Numeracy: Applied Measures in Two Childcare Contexts

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81065

Our research questions were as follows:

