**1. Introduction**

*Jack be nimble,*

*Jack be quick.*

*Jack jumped over, The candlestick.*

The lyrics to a popular early childhood rhyme that originated in the eighteenth century began with the chant, "Jack be nimble, Jack be quick." However, many educators working with young children will quickly tell you that all too often Jack is overweight, Jack is slow, and Jack lacks the necessary skills to jump over anything, much less a candlestick! Moreover, many early educators and child caregivers might also be quick to add physical activity and motor skills are not part of the early childhood curriculum, and there is not enough time to address anything not related to school readiness in the curriculum.

Over the past three decades, K-12 educational reform efforts in the United States have undoubtedly influenced early education curriculum. Early reform efforts introduced in 1989 by the Federal government, such as National Goals 2000, identified the goal of all children being ready upon entering school by 2000. These goals highlighted specifically the need for children to be academically prepared upon entering school or "school ready" [1]. Consequently, the emphasis on academic preparedness has resulted in "pushing down curriculum." Essentially, this has resulted in the academic curriculum once taught in primary grades now taught in early childhood preschool programs and childcare settings. Why does this really matter? After all, our early education programs are supposed to focus on preparing children to be academically ready or kindergarten. Correct?

Unfortunately, by focusing on a narrowly defined academic curriculum, policy makers, educators, and childcare providers are compromising critical areas of child functioning and development. From a developmental perspective, focusing exclusively on academic performance at a young age is akin to building the walls of a house before the foundation has been poured. Arguably, critical needs of children are being ignored for a cookie-cutter school readiness checklist.

For young children, it is important to have a strong foundation to promote positive health, physical activity, and the motor skills eventually leading to school success. Many caretakers and teachers erroneously assume children will naturally develop motor skills and are physically active through play. Unfortunately, positive outcomes will not occur without careful planning. By taking a close look at the early education programming, curriculum, and physical environment, more deliberative decisions can be made. By systemically addressing these needs through thoughtful planning, curriculum, and policy changes, it is possible to create a clear pathway for outcomes for children.

#### **2. Reversing the trajectory of adverse childhood outcomes**

Currently, millions of young children attend early childcare settings on a regular basis. These childcare settings include Head Start, public preschools, and private day care settings. It is not estimated that approximately 58% of children in the United States from 0 to 5 years attend a childcare setting outside the home [2]. This places public preschools and daycare providers in a unique position to address children's health and developmental needs.

Early childhood obesity has become more prevalent in the United States. In 2014, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reported that obesity rates of children between 2 and 5 years of age are 13.9% [3]. Obesity and overweight status is defined as children at 95 and 85th percentile of body mass index, respectively, taking into account age and height. However, the rates of obesity in early childhood appear at higher rates among Latino, African-American, and low SES populations of children [3, 4].

Childhood obesity is related to a myriad of health problems with long-term and short-term health consequences. Consequences for health can include increased risk for asthma [5, 6], diabetes [7, 8], mental health issues [9–11], and muscular, skeletal, and growth-related problems. In addition, children who enter kindergarten overweight are four times more likely to remain overweight or obese as an adolescent and into adulthood [12]. Without intervention, health-related obesity is one of the factors related to poor health consequences in adulthood.

Moreover, childhood obesity is likely to have long-term adverse impact on social development. For instance, obese children were more likely to experience depression, be more socially isolated, and have difficulties making friends with other children. Additionally, overweight children of all ages are much more likely to be targets for unwanted bullying by peers and other children.

Furthermore, childhood obesity affects important areas of children's development. Specifically, children's motor development is likely to be impacted. Young

**41**

activities.

*Jack Be Nimble and Jack Be Quick: Increasing Movement Competence in Early Childhood Settings*

children with increased body mass index (BMI) are more likely to have difficulties in performing fundamental motor skills (FMS) that are important in early childhood activities [13, 14]. As a result, children who lack FMS are more likely to refrain

Likewise, obesity can lead to poor academic performance for young children and adolescents. In younger grades, obese children are much more likely to perform poorly on standardized tests. A large-scale longitudinal study involving 11,192 kindergarten and first-grade children analyzed the standardized math and reading scores of children who were overweight and normal weight. In this study, overweight children performed more poorly on both math and reading scores [15]. Additionally, obese children and adolescents are more likely to dislike school and to

Participation in regular physical activity is one of the leading strategies recognized by public health officials to address early childhood obesity and is considered an essential part of the early childhood curriculum. The benefits of regular participation in physical activity for young children include maintenance of a healthy weight, increased academic skills, increased social-emotional development, and increased motor development. These benefits are important to the overall develop-

Physical activity and sedentary behaviors are among two of the contributing factors for early childhood obesity. The Society for Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) have indicated children need to have a minimum of 60 accumulated minutes each of structured and unstructured physical activity [17, 18]. Structured physical activity can include movement instruction to increase knowledge and skills related to fundamental movement concepts and knowledge related to spatial awareness and movement skills. Often, structured activity is taught by a movement specialist who is knowledgeable in physical education and movement skills for early childhood. Unstructured physical activity is unplanned movement time in which children are

Unfortunately, many young children do not accumulate the necessary and recommended number of minutes of unstructured or structured physical activity each day to maintain a healthy weight [19, 20]. Schools and day care settings can play an important role in increasing the physical activity levels for young children by adapting curriculum, adopting policies, and supporting changes in the daily routines and practices to increase physical activity. The Health and Medicine Division (HMD) of the National Academies, formerly referred to as Institutes of Medicine (IOM), has provided specific and concrete recommendations for increasing physical activity and decreasing sedentary time for preschool and daycare settings [20]. Among the recommendations of the HMD are the provision of structured and unstructured physical activity, daily outdoor physical activity, and 15 minutes per hour of light to

To increase structured activity, it is necessary to have a knowledgeable instructor or movement teacher who understands movement skills and concepts to provide young children with the foundation for an active lifestyle. For young children, a qualified instructor would include someone who is well-versed in providing developmentally appropriate physical education for young children. The availability of a movement instructor helps to ensure children are learning skills that allow them to learn to move efficiently to actively participate in childhood

consider negative long-term solutions such as dropping out of school [16].

**2.1 Promoting physical activity in childcare settings**

allowed to make their own movement choices.

moderate and vigorous physical activity.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81181*

from activities that require these skills.

ment of young children.

*Jack Be Nimble and Jack Be Quick: Increasing Movement Competence in Early Childhood Settings DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81181*

children with increased body mass index (BMI) are more likely to have difficulties in performing fundamental motor skills (FMS) that are important in early childhood activities [13, 14]. As a result, children who lack FMS are more likely to refrain from activities that require these skills.

Likewise, obesity can lead to poor academic performance for young children and adolescents. In younger grades, obese children are much more likely to perform poorly on standardized tests. A large-scale longitudinal study involving 11,192 kindergarten and first-grade children analyzed the standardized math and reading scores of children who were overweight and normal weight. In this study, overweight children performed more poorly on both math and reading scores [15]. Additionally, obese children and adolescents are more likely to dislike school and to consider negative long-term solutions such as dropping out of school [16].

#### **2.1 Promoting physical activity in childcare settings**

Participation in regular physical activity is one of the leading strategies recognized by public health officials to address early childhood obesity and is considered an essential part of the early childhood curriculum. The benefits of regular participation in physical activity for young children include maintenance of a healthy weight, increased academic skills, increased social-emotional development, and increased motor development. These benefits are important to the overall development of young children.

Physical activity and sedentary behaviors are among two of the contributing factors for early childhood obesity. The Society for Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) have indicated children need to have a minimum of 60 accumulated minutes each of structured and unstructured physical activity [17, 18]. Structured physical activity can include movement instruction to increase knowledge and skills related to fundamental movement concepts and knowledge related to spatial awareness and movement skills. Often, structured activity is taught by a movement specialist who is knowledgeable in physical education and movement skills for early childhood. Unstructured physical activity is unplanned movement time in which children are allowed to make their own movement choices.

Unfortunately, many young children do not accumulate the necessary and recommended number of minutes of unstructured or structured physical activity each day to maintain a healthy weight [19, 20]. Schools and day care settings can play an important role in increasing the physical activity levels for young children by adapting curriculum, adopting policies, and supporting changes in the daily routines and practices to increase physical activity. The Health and Medicine Division (HMD) of the National Academies, formerly referred to as Institutes of Medicine (IOM), has provided specific and concrete recommendations for increasing physical activity and decreasing sedentary time for preschool and daycare settings [20]. Among the recommendations of the HMD are the provision of structured and unstructured physical activity, daily outdoor physical activity, and 15 minutes per hour of light to moderate and vigorous physical activity.

To increase structured activity, it is necessary to have a knowledgeable instructor or movement teacher who understands movement skills and concepts to provide young children with the foundation for an active lifestyle. For young children, a qualified instructor would include someone who is well-versed in providing developmentally appropriate physical education for young children. The availability of a movement instructor helps to ensure children are learning skills that allow them to learn to move efficiently to actively participate in childhood activities.

*Early Childhood Education*

outcomes for children.

children's health and developmental needs.

identified the goal of all children being ready upon entering school by 2000. These goals highlighted specifically the need for children to be academically prepared upon entering school or "school ready" [1]. Consequently, the emphasis on academic preparedness has resulted in "pushing down curriculum." Essentially, this has resulted in the academic curriculum once taught in primary grades now taught in early childhood preschool programs and childcare settings. Why does this really matter? After all, our early education programs are supposed to focus on preparing

Unfortunately, by focusing on a narrowly defined academic curriculum, policy

makers, educators, and childcare providers are compromising critical areas of child functioning and development. From a developmental perspective, focusing exclusively on academic performance at a young age is akin to building the walls of a house before the foundation has been poured. Arguably, critical needs of children

For young children, it is important to have a strong foundation to promote positive health, physical activity, and the motor skills eventually leading to school success. Many caretakers and teachers erroneously assume children will naturally develop motor skills and are physically active through play. Unfortunately, positive outcomes will not occur without careful planning. By taking a close look at the early education programming, curriculum, and physical environment, more deliberative decisions can be made. By systemically addressing these needs through thoughtful planning, curriculum, and policy changes, it is possible to create a clear pathway for

Currently, millions of young children attend early childcare settings on a regular basis. These childcare settings include Head Start, public preschools, and private day care settings. It is not estimated that approximately 58% of children in the United States from 0 to 5 years attend a childcare setting outside the home [2]. This places public preschools and daycare providers in a unique position to address

Early childhood obesity has become more prevalent in the United States. In 2014, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) reported that obesity rates of children between 2 and 5 years of age are 13.9% [3]. Obesity and overweight status is defined as children at 95 and 85th percentile of body mass index, respectively, taking into account age and height. However, the rates of obesity in early childhood appear at higher rates among Latino, African-American, and low SES populations of children [3, 4].

Childhood obesity is related to a myriad of health problems with long-term and short-term health consequences. Consequences for health can include increased risk for asthma [5, 6], diabetes [7, 8], mental health issues [9–11], and muscular, skeletal, and growth-related problems. In addition, children who enter kindergarten overweight are four times more likely to remain overweight or obese as an adolescent and into adulthood [12]. Without intervention, health-related obesity is one of

Moreover, childhood obesity is likely to have long-term adverse impact on social development. For instance, obese children were more likely to experience depression, be more socially isolated, and have difficulties making friends with other children. Additionally, overweight children of all ages are much more likely to be

Furthermore, childhood obesity affects important areas of children's development. Specifically, children's motor development is likely to be impacted. Young

children to be academically ready or kindergarten. Correct?

are being ignored for a cookie-cutter school readiness checklist.

**2. Reversing the trajectory of adverse childhood outcomes**

the factors related to poor health consequences in adulthood.

targets for unwanted bullying by peers and other children.

**40**

Obviously, one barrier for increasing the opportunities for structured physical activity in childcare settings is the lack of availability of qualified instructors. Often, teacher training and background may be a barrier to increase structured physical activity. In addition, certified physical education teachers may lack appropriate early childhood field experiences [21]. When consider hiring a movement teacher or physical education teacher, it is important to consider their background in working with young children. A background and understanding of developmentally appropriate movement for young children are essential for early childhood movement instruction.

Most often, the responsibility of teaching physical education or structured lessons falls upon childcare providers and teachers. Unfortunately, many childcare providers have little to no training in their teacher preparation or background to teach movement lessons to young children. This lack of training limits the ability to plan lesson content, including developmentally appropriate content that covers knowledge and skills to encourage movement competence in early childhood. However, it is possible to learn curriculum and concepts necessary to teach young children movement competency through purposeful professional development and workshops.

Likewise, many children also do not receive the recommended 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity time in childcare settings. The amount of unstructured physical activity time children receive is dependent upon factors such as environmental and facility factors, staff-related factors, and policies that encourage daily physical activity and movement [22–24]. A closer look at the physical outdoor and indoor space can provide valuable information on the opportunities children have to engage in physical activity in a school or day care setting. For instance, the availability of indoor and outdoor spaces in the school or day care is essential for physical activity for children to move. Likewise, a space for indoor movement such as multipurpose room or gymnasium is also important to encourage movement.

Additionally, an obstacle to providing unstructured physical activity is the involvement and participation of childcare providers in physical activity. Teachers and staff members can unknowingly undermine children's participation in physical activity. To be able to promote unstructured physical activity, it is important for teachers to encourage movement by modeling involvement in physical activity [23–25]. Teachers and staff members influence the amount, types, and levels of involvement of children in physical activity.

Unquestionably, the most significant barrier for physical activity in many childcare settings is the available time in the curriculum to devote to regular physical activity. Many childcare providers will claim there is not enough time in the curriculum for children to participate in regular physical activity. However, this is an example of a narrow lens in which physical activity is being viewed. Specifically, there is an ample body of research that demonstrates physical activity can enhance academic performance and behaviors including increased cognitive skills, academic performance, and attentiveness [26–28].

To successfully increase physical activity in the young children's daily activity, it may be important to address time constraints in the curriculum. Childcare providers may accomplish this by using an integrated curricular approach. An integrated curricular approach uses a more active approach to teaching content. By integrating physical activity with academic content, it is possible to increase the amount of physical activity time. In fact, there are a small number of studies demonstrating positive outcomes of integrating academic core concepts with physical activity on both academic performance and physical activity [29–31]. Recently, researchers demonstrated increases in literacy skills in an intervention study involving physical activity with preschool children. In this study, the experimental group of children who received an integrated curriculum demonstrated greater phonological awareness, letter recognition, and print awareness than the control group [29].

**43**

variety of contexts.

*Jack Be Nimble and Jack Be Quick: Increasing Movement Competence in Early Childhood Settings*

Additionally, a proven strategy to accumulate physical activity in the curriculum for children is to provide "movement breaks," throughout the daily routine or schedule for young children. These planned breaks can be 5–10 minutes in length and scheduled throughout the day in the classroom for young children. Researchers have indicated that movement breaks can be an effective way to introduce daily physical activity into young children's schedule [32, 33]. In addition, movement breaks may also help in increasing young children's attentiveness and time on task. Finally, one strategy to improve children's physical activity levels is to use children's free time to provide instructions of motor skills. Children who are skillful are more likely to become involved in physical activity, demonstrate health-related physical fitness, and participate in physical activity opportunities that are available to them [34–36]. Conversely, young children who lack skills and movement proficiency are more likely to shy away from these activities and not accrue health-related benefits.

Over the past two decades, motor competence has been viewed as an important goal in reducing childhood obesity and increasing physical activity for children, adolescents, and adults. Children and adolescents who demonstrate motor competence are more likely to be physically active, have lower BMI, and demonstrate higher levels of physical fitness. The recognition of motor competence to the aforementioned outcomes has highlighted the importance of motor development in early childhood. However, there is a lack of a consistent definition of the components of motor

competence in the literature. A definition proposed nearly three decades ago

declared motor competency is the ability to perform gross and fine motor skills with proficiency [37]. More recently, a definition presented motor competence as a theoretical construct divided into three areas including locomotor skills (e.g., running, galloping, skipping), manipulative movement, and stability or balance movements [38]. Other researchers have equated motor competence exclusively by children's ability to perform fundamental motor skills [39–41]. From a developmental perspective, it is unclear as to whether either of these definitions provides a comprehensive

Likewise, physical educators have deliberated on what it means to be proficient in movement. Physical literacy is a term that has been gaining momentum in the United States over the last several years. However, various institutions, international organizations, and individuals have applied vastly different perspectives and meanings to the term, "physical literacy" [42–45]. It is clear that various meanings, explanations, and interpretations have been assigned to the term, "physical literacy." Consequently, National Standards in the United States were introduced in 2013 by the Society for Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) to better define what it means to be a physically literate person [46]. The SHAPE definition implies to be a physically literate individual, a person who has the requisite knowledge, movement competence, values, and attitudes to move and participate in physical activity in a

*(1) A physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of movement skills and patterns. (2) A physically literate individual applies knowledge of concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics related to movement and performance. (3) A physically literate individual demonstrates the knowledge and skills to* 

In addition, preschool children receiving the intervention were able accumulate

**3. Increasing movement competence in early childhood**

view of movement competence in early childhood.

Specifically, the standards state the following:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81181*

60 minutes per day of physical activity.

#### *Jack Be Nimble and Jack Be Quick: Increasing Movement Competence in Early Childhood Settings DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81181*

In addition, preschool children receiving the intervention were able accumulate 60 minutes per day of physical activity.

Additionally, a proven strategy to accumulate physical activity in the curriculum for children is to provide "movement breaks," throughout the daily routine or schedule for young children. These planned breaks can be 5–10 minutes in length and scheduled throughout the day in the classroom for young children. Researchers have indicated that movement breaks can be an effective way to introduce daily physical activity into young children's schedule [32, 33]. In addition, movement breaks may also help in increasing young children's attentiveness and time on task.

Finally, one strategy to improve children's physical activity levels is to use children's free time to provide instructions of motor skills. Children who are skillful are more likely to become involved in physical activity, demonstrate health-related physical fitness, and participate in physical activity opportunities that are available to them [34–36]. Conversely, young children who lack skills and movement proficiency are more likely to shy away from these activities and not accrue health-related benefits.

#### **3. Increasing movement competence in early childhood**

Over the past two decades, motor competence has been viewed as an important goal in reducing childhood obesity and increasing physical activity for children, adolescents, and adults. Children and adolescents who demonstrate motor competence are more likely to be physically active, have lower BMI, and demonstrate higher levels of physical fitness. The recognition of motor competence to the aforementioned outcomes has highlighted the importance of motor development in early childhood.

However, there is a lack of a consistent definition of the components of motor competence in the literature. A definition proposed nearly three decades ago declared motor competency is the ability to perform gross and fine motor skills with proficiency [37]. More recently, a definition presented motor competence as a theoretical construct divided into three areas including locomotor skills (e.g., running, galloping, skipping), manipulative movement, and stability or balance movements [38]. Other researchers have equated motor competence exclusively by children's ability to perform fundamental motor skills [39–41]. From a developmental perspective, it is unclear as to whether either of these definitions provides a comprehensive view of movement competence in early childhood.

Likewise, physical educators have deliberated on what it means to be proficient in movement. Physical literacy is a term that has been gaining momentum in the United States over the last several years. However, various institutions, international organizations, and individuals have applied vastly different perspectives and meanings to the term, "physical literacy" [42–45]. It is clear that various meanings, explanations, and interpretations have been assigned to the term, "physical literacy."

Consequently, National Standards in the United States were introduced in 2013 by the Society for Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE) to better define what it means to be a physically literate person [46]. The SHAPE definition implies to be a physically literate individual, a person who has the requisite knowledge, movement competence, values, and attitudes to move and participate in physical activity in a variety of contexts.

Specifically, the standards state the following:

*(1) A physically literate individual demonstrates competency in a variety of movement skills and patterns. (2) A physically literate individual applies knowledge of concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics related to movement and performance. (3) A physically literate individual demonstrates the knowledge and skills to* 

*Early Childhood Education*

Obviously, one barrier for increasing the opportunities for structured physical activity in childcare settings is the lack of availability of qualified instructors. Often, teacher training and background may be a barrier to increase structured physical activity. In addition, certified physical education teachers may lack appropriate early childhood field experiences [21]. When consider hiring a movement teacher or physical education teacher, it is important to consider their background in working with young children. A background and understanding of developmentally appropriate movement

Most often, the responsibility of teaching physical education or structured lessons falls upon childcare providers and teachers. Unfortunately, many childcare providers have little to no training in their teacher preparation or background to teach movement lessons to young children. This lack of training limits the ability to plan lesson content, including developmentally appropriate content that covers knowledge and skills to encourage movement competence in early childhood. However, it is possible to learn curriculum and concepts necessary to teach young children movement

for young children are essential for early childhood movement instruction.

competency through purposeful professional development and workshops.

involvement of children in physical activity.

performance, and attentiveness [26–28].

Likewise, many children also do not receive the recommended 60 minutes of unstructured physical activity time in childcare settings. The amount of unstructured physical activity time children receive is dependent upon factors such as environmental and facility factors, staff-related factors, and policies that encourage daily physical activity and movement [22–24]. A closer look at the physical outdoor and indoor space can provide valuable information on the opportunities children have to engage in physical activity in a school or day care setting. For instance, the availability of indoor and outdoor spaces in the school or day care is essential for physical activity for children to move. Likewise, a space for indoor movement such as multipurpose room or gymnasium is also important to encourage movement. Additionally, an obstacle to providing unstructured physical activity is the involvement and participation of childcare providers in physical activity. Teachers and staff members can unknowingly undermine children's participation in physical activity. To be able to promote unstructured physical activity, it is important for teachers to encourage movement by modeling involvement in physical activity [23–25]. Teachers and staff members influence the amount, types, and levels of

Unquestionably, the most significant barrier for physical activity in many childcare settings is the available time in the curriculum to devote to regular physical activity. Many childcare providers will claim there is not enough time in the curriculum for children to participate in regular physical activity. However, this is an example of a narrow lens in which physical activity is being viewed. Specifically, there is an ample body of research that demonstrates physical activity can enhance academic performance and behaviors including increased cognitive skills, academic

To successfully increase physical activity in the young children's daily activity, it may be important to address time constraints in the curriculum. Childcare providers may accomplish this by using an integrated curricular approach. An integrated curricular approach uses a more active approach to teaching content. By integrating physical activity with academic content, it is possible to increase the amount of physical activity time. In fact, there are a small number of studies demonstrating positive outcomes of integrating academic core concepts with physical activity on both academic performance and physical activity [29–31]. Recently, researchers demonstrated increases in literacy skills in an intervention study involving physical activity with preschool children. In this study, the experimental group of children who received an integrated curriculum demonstrated greater phonological awareness, letter recognition, and print awareness than the control group [29].

**42**

*achieve and maintain a health-enhancing level of physical activity and fitness. (4) A physically literate person who respects self and others exhibits responsible personal and social behaviors. (5) The physically literate individual recognizes the value of physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, and social interaction.* [46]

Although the standards provide a comprehensive view of the ultimate goal for "physical literacy," it is not entirely clear how the standards can be applied for early childhood movement competencies. From a developmental perspective, it is imperative that children acquire a large repertoire of movement competencies including knowledge of and application of movement concepts, fundamental motor skills, and fine motor skills. Movement competence in early childhood is important for participation in physical activity and future academic success.
