**5. Statistical analyses and results**

We first performed an analysis of variance to ascertain the political orientation as firmly acting differences within groups in SDO males and females scores.

Results are shown in **Table 1**.

To deepen the test of the invariance hypothesis, we applied a multiple regression model involving social dominance orientation and gender across the four groups considered. A multigroup path analysis was performed to test the hypothesis of the influences of gender on social dominance, this way independently of political orientation. A dummy variable was created with 1 corresponding to males. Thus, in our regression model, the weight is the average difference between males and females on SDO.

SDO was treated as an exogenous latent variable with three indices. The latter was formed summing up groups of items of the scale. The figure below illustrates the conceptual model (**Figure 1**).

Several competing models were tested.

Hypotheses were as follows in ascending order of constraints:


Results showed in **Table 2** ascertain from these results that hypotheses H1 and H0A showed a relevant good fit.

In order to choose the best model, D2 statistic was calculated [54] as follows:

$$\text{D2 = Chi}^2 \text{HOA - Chi}^2 \text{H1} \tag{1}$$

$$\mathbf{df = dfHOA - dfH1} \tag{2}$$

So,

$$\mathbf{D2} = \mathbf{18.37} \mathbf{-13.86} \tag{3}$$

$$\mathbf{df = 11-8 = 3} \tag{4}$$

$$\mathbf{p} = \mathbf{0}.211.\tag{5}$$


#### **Table 1.**

*Four political groups, male and female—SDO means.*

**67**

*Political Gender Gap and Social Dominance Orientation*

is not statistically significant, it is possible to choose

the model of the invariance of regression weight among the political groups. Focusing on this model, fit indexes were RMSEA = 0.07; NFI = 0.98; and CFI = 0.99. Loading differences among the groups did not seem due to a different factorial

**Model Chi df P** H1 13.86 8 0.09 H0A 18.37 11 0.07 H0B 23.86 14 0.05 H0C 29.76 17 0.03

Concerning the main hypothesis, these results showed that males express higher SDO than females invariantly of their right-wing or left-wing political orientation

Recent years have seen a rise in the political gender gap; women in Western European countries have gradually preferred more leftist parties [55]. In the United States, the share of women who identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party has increased. The last data from the Pew Research Center [56] show that among registered voters, 56% of women affiliate or favor the Democratic Party compared to 44% of men. Several authors have hypothesized that the difference between women and men on political attitudes and political party identification can be attributed to differences in SDO [5]. To investigate if the gender gap in politics goes deeper than traditional left-wing and right-wing division, we analyzed gender differences in SDO in activists of HE and HA political parties. According to the gender invariance hypothesis, all else been equal, men should still have significantly higher SDO than women. The predisposition of males to be temperamentally inclined to dominate will produce nonetheless residual gender differences even among males

and females belonging to groups who uphold egalitarian group values.

To analyze the gender invariance hypothesis in a political context, we based our study on political activists. Political activists, in fact, not only identify with groups that hold specific hierarchy-enhancing or hierarchy-attenuating ideologies but actively participate, promoting their values and ideas within the group. Their active commitment in specific HE or HA groups should encourage in fact, even more, the internalization of legitimizing myths that may influence their levels of SDO. Our research was based on four samples of male and female activists belonging to hierarchy enhancing – right-wing – vs. hierarchy attenuating – left-wing - political groups. According with SIT and SDT, the SDO scores should be higher in right-wing groups than left-wing groups and highest in extreme rightwing groups and lowest in extreme left groups. However, according to SDT, even while absolute levels of SDO may vary across situations, men should still have significantly higher SDO than women. The SIT theory, on the contrary, would predict that groups on both sides of the political divide should attract males and females who, for the left, are strong egalitarian and do not favor the oppression of one group over another and, for the right males and females, who hold equally strong opposite views. Gender differences should be insignificant since egalitarian adult socialization

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92222*

Since the reduction in Chi2

*Results of path analysis of the model tested.*

(beta = 0.21; R2 = 0.04).

structure.

**Table 2.**

**6. Discussion**

#### **Figure 1.**

*Conceptual model of the regression of gender on social dominance orientation.*

*Political Gender Gap and Social Dominance Orientation DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92222*


**Table 2.**

*Psycho-Social Aspects of Human Sexuality and Ethics*

H0A showed a relevant good fit.

So,

**Gender Political** 

Males Extreme

Females Extreme

**orientation**

right-wing

Extreme left-wing

right-wing

Extreme left-wing

Center right 3.27 Center left 1.84

Total 2.93

Center right 3.03 Center left 1.79

Total 2.46

*Four political groups, male and female—SDO means.*

1.73

3.12

1.46

Results showed in **Table 2** ascertain from these results that hypotheses H1 and

H0A − Chi<sup>2</sup>

**Means Gender Political** 

H1 (1)

df = dfH0A − dfH1 (2)

D2 = 18.37–13.86 (3)

df = 11–8 = 3 (4)

p = 0.211. (5)

**orientation**

*F P F p F p*

3.74 19.85 <0.001 192.00 <0.001 3.16 <0.05

**Gender × political orientation**

In order to choose the best model, D2 statistic was calculated [54] as follows:

D2 = Chi2

**66**

**Figure 1.**

**Table 1.**

*Conceptual model of the regression of gender on social dominance orientation.*

*Results of path analysis of the model tested.*

Since the reduction in Chi2 is not statistically significant, it is possible to choose the model of the invariance of regression weight among the political groups. Focusing on this model, fit indexes were RMSEA = 0.07; NFI = 0.98; and CFI = 0.99.

Loading differences among the groups did not seem due to a different factorial structure.

Concerning the main hypothesis, these results showed that males express higher SDO than females invariantly of their right-wing or left-wing political orientation (beta = 0.21; R2 = 0.04).
