*3.2.1. Manipulative technologies*

Manipulatives, in the context of education, are physical tools that engage students in hands-on learning. Based on the constructivist theories, the manipulation (i.e. organisation, combination, comparison, etc.) of objects, such as blocks, figures and puzzles, is central to the learning process, as it stimulates multisensory experience. Commonly, manipulatives are used to teach STEAM to young students and to bring fun to the learning process [43]. Recent studies show a high level of acceptance of digital manipulatives by teachers and students, as well as a positive impact on learning (e.g. [44]).

For example, Magic Blocks [45] are RFID-tagged logical blocks which children can manipulate in order to perform educational tasks set by a real or a virtual teacher, to stimulate learning of mathematical and logics concepts. LittleBits<sup>1</sup> are small electronic objects, each one with a distinct function (motion, light, sound, sensor, etc.) that easily fits to each other through magnets, used to create electronic circuits. They stimulate the inventive nature of children to create numberless projects while they learn not only logic, maths and electronics but also product design, prototyping and entrepreneurship. Furthermore, digital manipulatives stimulate a *makers* attitude, turning students into active creators. Learning in a makers environment provide opportunities for disrupting students' conventional practices of invention, exploring through play, failure, risk-taking and refiguring creation as remix and craft [46].

Virtual manipulatives, such as Wolfram Demonstrations Project,2 Shodor Interactivate Activities3 and GeoGebra,4 completely substitute the physical elements. Empirical studies show that virtual manipulatives encourage creativity and increase the variety of solutions that students encounter [46], which is in line with the constructivist theory.

Cubelets5 and Robo Wunderkind6 enable young children to design and construct robots through manipulatives—mountable blocks that contain the functions of a robot (a switch, a motor, a sensor, etc.). These tools demonstrated to positively change students' attitude towards STEM and computer science [48], as well as to foster critical thinking skills [49].

<sup>1</sup> https://www.littlebits.com/

<sup>2</sup> http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/

<sup>3</sup> http://www.shodor.org/interactivate/activities/

<sup>4</sup> https://www.geogebra.org/

<sup>5</sup> https://www.modrobotics.com/

<sup>6</sup> https://robowunderkind.com/en/

#### *3.2.2. Educational robotics*

Educational robotics uses tangible materials to teach a variety of topics, including STEM, literacy, social studies, dance, music and art [50]. Such teaching strategy enhances students' learning experience through hands-on/mind-on activities integrated with technology. Nowadays, a large number of educational robotics tools are available on the market, including LEGO WeDo<sup>7</sup> and LEGO Mindstorms,<sup>8</sup> mBot,9 Bee-Bot,10 Ozobot11 and Dash and Dot.12 For the younger learners (age below 6 years) educational robotics often focuses on learning the basic programming principles, simple logics and mathematics concepts. Commonly, the creation of both hardware and software parts of a robot encourages children to think imaginatively, stimulates them to analyse situations and applies critical thinking in solving real-world problems.

Ina addition, robots can be involved in teaching and learning social skills [51]. Indeed, robotics activities are usually organised in a collaborative manner, with a small number of students working together to achieve the proposed objectives [52]. Hence, teamwork and cooperation are an integral part of any robotics project: students learn to express their ideas and listen to those of their peers; all can offer arguments and reach conclusions jointly. Students focus on resolving problems for achieving the goals of their projects and learn from their errors on the way.

#### *3.2.3. Game design and coding*

Since Papert first introduced the Logo programming language and the 'Logo turtle', coding and developing computational thinking skills have become more and more important in today's world and particularly in education [53]. Mass acceptance is enabled by the availability of programming tools which are appropriate for younger learners. Indeed, several visual programming languages using puzzle-like blocks appeared in recent years, such as Scratch13, Kodu14 and Alice.15 Students focus on learning programming concepts and practise a variety of skills [54], instead of solving syntax problems. Those programming environments, when appropriately integrated in teaching practices, promote exploration, risk-taking and autonomous learning, as well as increase students' motivation [55] and spark students' imagination [56].
