**1.6. Conclusion**

Almost all forms of active learning assume that students will work cooperatively in small groups. Cooperative learning is, therefore, the foundation on which most active learning strategies are built.

or entities must have dynamic impact on each other. In the late 1940s, Morton Deutsch, one of Lewin's graduate students, extended Lewin's reasoning about interdependence and formulated a theory of cooperation and competition [14, 15]. The authors of this chapter, David (who was a doctoral student of Deutsch) and Roger Johnson, extended and expanded Deutsch's theory [10, 13, 16–19]. It should be noted that the authors of this chapter (David and Roger Johnson) coined the term social interdependence theory to describe their expanded version of the theory of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic efforts. Deutsch believed that social interdependence theory included more than cooperative, competitive, and individualistic pro-

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In his theory of cooperation and competition, Deutsch posits that cooperation is created by *positive goal interdependence*, which exists when group members perceive that they can reach their goals if and only if the other group members also reach their goals [14, 15]. Competition is created by *negative goal interdependence*, which exists when group members perceive that they can obtain their goals if and only if the other group members fail to obtain their goals. Individualistic efforts are creative by *no goal interdependence*, which exists when individuals perceive that reaching their goal is independent from other individuals attaining their goals. Positive goal interdependence tends to result in promotive interaction, negative goal interdependence tends to result in oppositional interaction, and no goal interdependence results in an absence of interaction. The relationship between the cooperation and competition and the

interaction pattern each elicits tends to be bidirectional. Each may cause the other.

Four types of cooperative learning have been derived from cooperation and competition theory [1]. Formal cooperative learning may be implemented to teach specific content, informal cooperative learning may be implemented to ensure active cognitive processing of information during direct teaching, cooperative base groups may be implemented to provide longterm support and assistance, and constructive controversy may be implemented to create

Ref. [1] define *formal cooperative learning* as students working together, for one class period to several weeks, to achieve mutual learning goals and complete jointly specific tasks and assignments. Instructors can structure any course requirement or assignment in any curriculum or subject area for any age student cooperatively. To structure formal cooperative

**1.** Makes a series of decisions about how to structure the learning groups (what size groups, how students are assigned to groups, what roles to assign, how to arrange materials, and how to arrange the room). The instructor also specifies the objectives for the lesson (one

academic, intellectual conflicts to enhance achievement and creative problem solving.

cesses, so he reserved the term for a future yet undefined theory.

**3. Types of cooperative learning**

**3.1. Formal cooperative learning**

academic and one social skills).

learning the instructor:
