**11. Discussion and conclusions**

The counselor said, "During the exam, I saw the girl using additional pages while she was writing […] and only after I was certain that she was cheating did I approach her and ask her

The proctor, who was the school counselor, involved the exam coordinator who, on the proc-

**Dilemma 9—The ninth dilemma** was about a student who had saved a sum of money to participate in a class trip. Before the trip, the student's father needed the money and requested it from him. As a result, the student could not participate in the trip. The dilemma was whether to cancel his participation because his father had taken the money that he had paid or to try to

The school counselor said, "The student's father needed the money suddenly and that is why

The school counselor said that the student should take the money that he had already paid for the trip back, give it to his father, and not participate in the trip. In this case, the seriousness of the harm that this caused the student (who had learning disabilities) was not taken into consideration. The school counselor did not attempt to find an alternative solution or to allow

**Dilemma 10—The tenth dilemma** was about a group of students who decided to surprise the teacher and make him a party for his birthday. The students had not consulted the teacher about the preparations for the party. The dilemma was whether or not to continue with the plans for the party respecting what the class had organized or to stop the party plans because

The school counselor said, "The response of the teacher was very strong claiming that the plans were made without his knowledge, and was in conflict with the everyday work that should be carried out in a high school […]. The teacher expressed serious concern and asked

The response of the teacher was very strong and showed that he was unwilling to digress from the format of the curriculum. The teacher asked the students to cancel the party, but the

**Dilemma 12— The 12th dilemma** was about two girlfriends, when one of them is very dependent on the other so much so that the stronger one exploits her and asks her for personal favors. The dilemma was whether to intervene to stop the exploitation or to ignore the situa-

The counselor said, "One is following the other, when the second exploits her for personal

In this case, the school counselor intervened. He met with one of the girls privately and afterward met with them together. He explained more desirable ways of behaving toward friends

tion and hope that the girl would find a way to end the dependence on her friend.

and threatened both of them with severe punishment if the situation did not change.

he asked his son to give him all of the money he had saved and not to go on the trip."

find alternative sources of funding so that the student could come on the trip.

the student to come on the trip and to remain integrated in the class.

to give me the pages."

132 Active Learning - Beyond the Future

tor's word, rejected the exam.

the teacher was strongly opposed.

counselor supported a more modest event.

that the party be canceled."

purposes."

The main goal of the research was to examine the ways school counselors coped with social and moral dilemmas in secondary schools for students with learning disabilities.

In this study, we asked 15 school counselors to describe the dilemmas they encountered in their work and tell us how they handled them.

From an analysis of the dilemmas that we examined, we observed two different approaches: one expressed a more open, democratic approach to solving dilemmas and the other a more closed conservative approach.

Handling dilemmas in the more open, democratic way was characterized by an individualized, therapeutic approach to meet the needs of the students with close follow-up by the school counselor. This approach included many creative solutions to problems they encountered. The counselors emphasized the internalization by the students of their unacceptable behavior, met with the students, and raised the dilemmas for discussion in class by presenting parallel examples [7].

The characteristics of the open approach are consistent with the fifth model—the complete discourse—according to Oser and Althof [6]. According to this model, the teacher facilitates a discussion among those involved and allows them to be involved in the decision-making process and in the implementation of the decision [7, 20, 21].

development, and each stage is based on the previous stage through interaction with the

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According to the constructivist approach, knowledge is a function of the way students create reality through their experiences. Students sift through knowledge of the world to create a unique reality of their own. Experimenting directly with the environment is of utmost importance in building knowledge. Students construct knowledge; they do not acquire it. There is no single predetermined "correct" reality. The student does not transfer knowledge of the world from the outside to his mind, but constructs his own personal interpretation of the world based on personal experiences and interaction with the environment. Accordingly, the internal representation of knowledge is not static. There is no objective reality that the student must know [19]. In order to understand learning, genuine experiences must be examined. Factors related to the student and to the environment are important, and the interaction between them creates knowledge. Behavior is determined by the situation, and every act is perceived as an interpretation of the present situation based on a complete history of prior interactions. It is important for learning to take place in real situations and that they are relevant to the life of the student. Ways of coping with social and moral dilemmas based on the constructivist approach include active, gradual, focused building from a social perspective with the idea that knowledge is not isolated from the individual. The focus is on creating cognitive tools that reflect the cultural contexts, the insights, and the experiences of the students. There is no need to acquire concepts or set details or abstract ideas. The counselor must use active practices, concepts (knowledge), and culture (context). Authentic tasks, based on real contexts, must be used [19]. The school counselor should identify incorrect, biased, or primary concepts that were acquired at an earlier stage and discuss these concepts when they arise. They should facilitate the examination of their environment and help them understand complex ideas that will enable them to think like experts. This type of knowledge is not abstract. It is directly related to the experiences of the students. The students should be encouraged to construct knowledge

This type of discussion is desirable for solving some of the dilemmas mentioned, such as the student who acted out as a class clown and constantly disturbed the class during lessons or the student who behaved aggressively in school. In both of these cases, the school counselor conducted discussions with the students and involved the teachers and the parents, in order for the students to internalize their mistakes, and the learning is constructed with a way that will be remembered. She solved problems in both cases by placing the emphasis on the problem and raising the seriousness of the issue to the students. Using the cognitive educational approach is based on complex mental cognitive processes, such as thinking, problem solving, language, creating concepts, and processing information. The emphasis is on acquiring knowledge as a mental process, which includes internal coding. The student is an active part-

Ways of handling social and moral dilemmas based on the cognitive approach include explaining, illustrating, practicing, and providing feedback. The emphasis is on mental activities of the learner who brings responses and mental planning, establishing goals and

environment in an active process [19].

and to validate it through social discussions [15, 25].

ner in the educational process.

In contrast, the more traditional, conservative approach to solving dilemmas is through punishment related to the severity of the act by the school counselor or other authorities in the school. This is without giving a chance to the students to internalize the severity of the acts or to improve their behavior. Handling dilemmas in this way is based on traditional principles, which focus on the rules without taking into consideration the needs of the students.

These characteristics of the traditional, conservative approach to solving social and moral dilemmas are consistent with Models 1–4 of Oser and Althof's theory [6] which include avoidance, transfer of authority, one-sided decision-making, and incomplete dialog.

According to the typology used in this research, we examined the way school counselors handled social and moral dilemmas in two conflicting ways: the open democratic approach and the conservative, traditional approach. There are other pedagogical approaches discussed in the professional literature. We will focus on three of them: (a) the behaviorist approach, (b) the constructivist approach, and (c) the cognitive approach [22].

According to the behaviorist approach, the educational process is based on observable behavior that takes place through stimulus and response. The emphasis is on strengthening the desired response that improves the chances that the response will repeat itself when the appropriate stimulus appears [22].

Coping with social and moral dilemmas using a behaviorist approach includes practicing and repetition, creating a gradual sequence and immediate feedback. This way of handling dilemmas emphasizes adopting routine, automatic skills where the role of the school counselor focuses on training, transfer of information, and providing feedback [23].

In the process of coping with these dilemmas, no attempt is made to provide a given structure of knowledge to the students or to determine which mental processes are necessary for them. Students are characterized as respondents to environmental conditions and do not play an active role in creating the environment. The main factor is the organization of stimuli and results within the environment.

This description is consistent with the following dilemmas: in an episode in which the student ridiculed another student who mispronounced words or the student who was caught cheating on an exam. In these episodes, the school counselor responded with punishment without conducting any prior discussion. The school counselor did not give the students a chance to understand their mistake, which could result in the repetition of the mistake. Instead, the counselor used punishment following the inappropriate actions of the students [24].

According to the constructivist approach, the educational process is an active process in which the students' contributions are not less important than those of the teacher. The learning takes place in an active way, by building knowledge and responsibility of the learner for the knowledge. The ability of students in learning develops along with their cognitive development, and each stage is based on the previous stage through interaction with the environment in an active process [19].

The characteristics of the open approach are consistent with the fifth model—the complete discourse—according to Oser and Althof [6]. According to this model, the teacher facilitates a discussion among those involved and allows them to be involved in the decision-making

In contrast, the more traditional, conservative approach to solving dilemmas is through punishment related to the severity of the act by the school counselor or other authorities in the school. This is without giving a chance to the students to internalize the severity of the acts or to improve their behavior. Handling dilemmas in this way is based on traditional principles,

These characteristics of the traditional, conservative approach to solving social and moral dilemmas are consistent with Models 1–4 of Oser and Althof's theory [6] which include avoid-

According to the typology used in this research, we examined the way school counselors handled social and moral dilemmas in two conflicting ways: the open democratic approach and the conservative, traditional approach. There are other pedagogical approaches discussed in the professional literature. We will focus on three of them: (a) the behaviorist approach, (b) the

According to the behaviorist approach, the educational process is based on observable behavior that takes place through stimulus and response. The emphasis is on strengthening the desired response that improves the chances that the response will repeat itself when the

Coping with social and moral dilemmas using a behaviorist approach includes practicing and repetition, creating a gradual sequence and immediate feedback. This way of handling dilemmas emphasizes adopting routine, automatic skills where the role of the school counselor

In the process of coping with these dilemmas, no attempt is made to provide a given structure of knowledge to the students or to determine which mental processes are necessary for them. Students are characterized as respondents to environmental conditions and do not play an active role in creating the environment. The main factor is the organization of stimuli and

This description is consistent with the following dilemmas: in an episode in which the student ridiculed another student who mispronounced words or the student who was caught cheating on an exam. In these episodes, the school counselor responded with punishment without conducting any prior discussion. The school counselor did not give the students a chance to understand their mistake, which could result in the repetition of the mistake. Instead, the

According to the constructivist approach, the educational process is an active process in which the students' contributions are not less important than those of the teacher. The learning takes place in an active way, by building knowledge and responsibility of the learner for the knowledge. The ability of students in learning develops along with their cognitive

counselor used punishment following the inappropriate actions of the students [24].

which focus on the rules without taking into consideration the needs of the students.

ance, transfer of authority, one-sided decision-making, and incomplete dialog.

focuses on training, transfer of information, and providing feedback [23].

process and in the implementation of the decision [7, 20, 21].

constructivist approach, and (c) the cognitive approach [22].

appropriate stimulus appears [22].

134 Active Learning - Beyond the Future

results within the environment.

According to the constructivist approach, knowledge is a function of the way students create reality through their experiences. Students sift through knowledge of the world to create a unique reality of their own. Experimenting directly with the environment is of utmost importance in building knowledge. Students construct knowledge; they do not acquire it. There is no single predetermined "correct" reality. The student does not transfer knowledge of the world from the outside to his mind, but constructs his own personal interpretation of the world based on personal experiences and interaction with the environment. Accordingly, the internal representation of knowledge is not static. There is no objective reality that the student must know [19].

In order to understand learning, genuine experiences must be examined. Factors related to the student and to the environment are important, and the interaction between them creates knowledge. Behavior is determined by the situation, and every act is perceived as an interpretation of the present situation based on a complete history of prior interactions. It is important for learning to take place in real situations and that they are relevant to the life of the student.

Ways of coping with social and moral dilemmas based on the constructivist approach include active, gradual, focused building from a social perspective with the idea that knowledge is not isolated from the individual. The focus is on creating cognitive tools that reflect the cultural contexts, the insights, and the experiences of the students. There is no need to acquire concepts or set details or abstract ideas. The counselor must use active practices, concepts (knowledge), and culture (context). Authentic tasks, based on real contexts, must be used [19].

The school counselor should identify incorrect, biased, or primary concepts that were acquired at an earlier stage and discuss these concepts when they arise. They should facilitate the examination of their environment and help them understand complex ideas that will enable them to think like experts. This type of knowledge is not abstract. It is directly related to the experiences of the students. The students should be encouraged to construct knowledge and to validate it through social discussions [15, 25].

This type of discussion is desirable for solving some of the dilemmas mentioned, such as the student who acted out as a class clown and constantly disturbed the class during lessons or the student who behaved aggressively in school. In both of these cases, the school counselor conducted discussions with the students and involved the teachers and the parents, in order for the students to internalize their mistakes, and the learning is constructed with a way that will be remembered. She solved problems in both cases by placing the emphasis on the problem and raising the seriousness of the issue to the students. Using the cognitive educational approach is based on complex mental cognitive processes, such as thinking, problem solving, language, creating concepts, and processing information. The emphasis is on acquiring knowledge as a mental process, which includes internal coding. The student is an active partner in the educational process.

Ways of handling social and moral dilemmas based on the cognitive approach include explaining, illustrating, practicing, and providing feedback. The emphasis is on mental activities of the learner who brings responses and mental planning, establishing goals and organizing effective strategies of processing information. It is important to pay attention to the ways the learner codes, processes, practices, stores, and retrieves information. The focus is on the thoughts of the students, their beliefs, their perspectives, and their values as influential participants in the educational process. The goal is to change behavior by practicing appropriate strategies. The students' understanding is based on information such as laws, concepts, and distinctions. Because of the emphasis on mental constructs, the cognitive approach is suitable for explaining complex types of learning (thinking, problem solving, knowledge processing) [26].

**12. Limitations of the current research and suggestions for future** 

qualitative research only in relation to the researcher's stated perspective [17].

particular type of analysis, and there may very well be other perspectives.

**13. Recommendations and pedagogical implications**

Address all correspondence to: saied@beitberl.ac.il

University; 2003 (in Hebrew)

Beit-Berl College, Elqasemi College and Open university, Israel

This study used qualitative methods of research. The conclusions, therefore, are dependent on and based on subjective interpretation, which is the essence of this qualitative approach. Inclusion, validity, and reliability that serve as indicators of research quality are significant in

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In the present study, participants chose to reveal experiences and particular positions, and it is possible that there are other perspectives. Additionally, the researchers chose to focus on a

Future studies should use a quantitative approach to look at similar problems and should expand the population studied to confirm the link between methods of handling social and

Based on the knowledge that we have, we can develop intervention programs that lead to the development of more effective ways of handling these dilemmas. We will be able to improve the training of school counselors and to expose them to a range of social and moral dilemmas that they are likely to experience in their professional life in schools. In the framework of their training, participants will be able to reconsider their earlier opinions through exposure to newer approaches and to develop new ideas for solving complex

[1] Tzadik Y. The contribution of the "desired student" perception, the school context, and the personal and professional background of teachers in the senior secondary school to explain the classroom teaching strategies [Master's thesis]. Ramat-Gan: Bar-Ilan

moral dilemmas with personal and professional characteristics of school counselors.

**studies**

problems.

**Author details**

Saied Bishara

**References**

According to the cognitive approach, the school counselor focuses on the pre-disposition of the student (how the student activates, preserves, and directs the learning process), will plan learning to include internalization based on the focus of mental structures of the learner, and will attempt to transform information to relevant knowledge for the student. The school counselor will help students organize new knowledge and relate it to existing knowledge already in their memory. The counselor will base mental structures or reviews and organize the information in such a way that the students will be able to relate the new information to existing information in a way that will make it personally relevant. According to the cognitive approach, the student will bring many learning experiences to an educational situation that can influence the results. The educational process determines the most effective way to organize new knowledge so that it interacts with previously acquired knowledge of the students, their abilities, and their experiences, and it will be absorbed in the cognitive structure of the learner (Lemmens et al., 2016).

These theories are consistent with some of the dilemmas presented in this research, such as the student who was unable to participate in a project because of serious financial problems or the student who used some of the money collected in class for a gift for a student who broke his leg. In both of these cases, the counselor used creative thinking based on creative mental processes, without upsetting the students in front of their peers [27].

The typology used in this research to distinguish between two conflicting pedagogical approaches (open, democratic approach versus a traditional conservative approach) presents the broadest ways of conceptualization in dealing with developments and changes in the field of education and includes three pedagogical approaches described above (behaviorist, constructivist, and cognitive). It is important to present these three approaches on a continuum behaviorist, cognitive, and constructivist—when the focus changes along the continuum from passive transfer of facts and routine to active processing of ideas and problem solving. The principles of the constructivist approach and the cognitive approach are consistent with the open, democratic approach, and the principles of the behaviorist approach are consistent with the traditional, conservative approach [8, 28, 29].

The question is asked as to which of the pedagogical approaches to handling social and moral dilemmas are more effective. The educational process is dynamic and is influenced by many factors. It is a process of continuous change. One pedagogical approach is likely to be more effective for a new learner who encounters a complex body of knowledge for the first time, but not effective or more challenging for a learner who knows the content already. Furthermore, teaching facts is different from acquiring concepts or solving problems.
