**3. Types of cooperative learning**

**1.6. Conclusion**

62 Active Learning - Beyond the Future

strategies are built.

used appropriately.

Social Interdependence theory.

**2.1. Structure-process-outcome theory**

**2.2. Social interdependence theory**

**2. Cooperative learning**

Almost all forms of active learning assume that students will work cooperatively in small groups. Cooperative learning is, therefore, the foundation on which most active learning

Most methods of active learning require the use of cooperative learning as an essential part of their method. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which most active learning methods are built. *Cooperation* is working together to accomplish shared goals [10, 11]. When cooperating, individuals work to achieve outcomes that benefit themselves and all other group members. *Cooperative learning* exists when small groups of students work to enhance their own and their groupmates' learning [1]. It is often compared to *competitive learning* (students working to accomplish academic goals that only one or a few participants can attain) and *individualistic learning* (each student working by him- or herself to complete assignments). Student efforts are evaluated on a criteria-referenced basis in cooperative and individualistic learning, while in competitive learning students are evaluated on a norm-referenced basis. Any learning task in any subject area with any curriculum may be structured cooperatively, but there are limitations on when and where competitive and individualistic learning may be

Cooperative learning is largely based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and

Watson and Johnson [12] theorized that the way a situation is structured determines the process individuals engage in to complete the task, which determines the outcomes of the situation. The processes of interaction, in other words, determine outcomes, not the structure of the situation directly. This theory focuses instructors on structuring learning goals to create desired processes of interaction among students and between the students and the instructor. Once the desired processes of interaction occur, outcomes will tend to automatically result [10, 13].

A second theory underlying cooperative learning is social interdependence theory [10]. In the early 1900s Kurt Koffka, proposed that groups were dynamic wholes in which the interdependence among members could vary. In the 1930s Kurt Lewin stated that the interdependence among members created by common goals is the essence of a group. The goal interdependence unites members into a "dynamic whole," so that changes in the state of a member or subgroup modify the state of other members or subgroups. In addition, motivation to accomplish the common goals results from an intrinsic state of tension within each group member. For interdependence to exist, there must be more than one person or entity involved, and the persons Four types of cooperative learning have been derived from cooperation and competition theory [1]. Formal cooperative learning may be implemented to teach specific content, informal cooperative learning may be implemented to ensure active cognitive processing of information during direct teaching, cooperative base groups may be implemented to provide longterm support and assistance, and constructive controversy may be implemented to create academic, intellectual conflicts to enhance achievement and creative problem solving.
