**2.4. Creative pedagogies**

*2.1.4. Product-oriented approaches*

110 Active Learning - Beyond the Future

**2.2. Towards a definition**

a specific need [9].

**2.3. Characteristics of creative education**

characteristics of creative education:

The last dimension focuses on the tangible or intangible outcomes of the creative process. Researchers commonly define two characteristics of creative products, namely, usefulness and novelty [12, 13]. Usefulness refers to the adequacy of the outcome to its context of use. As for novelty, literature distinguishes between Big-C (consensual) and little-c (personal) creativity [19]. Kaufman and Beghetto [20] proposed a Four-C Model which differentiates mini-c (interpretive creativity), little-c (everyday creativity), Pro-C (expert creativity) and Big-C ('legendary' creativity).

Defining creativity results to be a complex task [21]. The word has been applied to a variety of fields, settings and theories [22]; hence, scientific literature lacks a sound definition. Nevertheless, there appears to be consensus on the main features of creativity [23]: it refers to the ability to create something novel and appropriate [24]. The term 'novel' describes an original solution, while the term 'appropriate' refers to the usefulness of the product as applied to

As applied to the field of education, the NACCCE [22] provided a comprehensive definition, which does not limit to the product dimension, describing creativity as an 'imaginative activity fashioned so as to produce outcomes that are both original and of value' (p. 30). Cremin et al. [25] added some components to this definition, so that it matches a personal view of creativity (littlec): 'purposive imaginative activity generating outcomes that are original and valuable in relation to the learner'. In this view, creativity processes involve four characteristics: (a) they consist of thinking imaginatively, (b) they are purposeful (i.e. directed towards a specific goal), (c) they result in an original and valuable outcome and (d) the learner constitutes the reference point.

The research community views creativity as a developmental quality which is amenable to teaching [7]. A review of literature in creative education allows for identifying three clear

• *A democratic approach*: traditionally, creativity is seen as a quality reserved for exceptionally talented individuals [22]. This exclusive perspective recently changed towards an inclusive one, to which all people from all ages can be creative [16, 26]. This new angle is widely adopted in the field of education, considering that all students have a creative potential

• *A focus on little-c creativity*: small levels of creativity give importance to personal processes beyond outstanding accomplishments. As applied to education, this perspective encourages students to develop new and personally meaningful insights and discoveries, as well

• *A domain-wide approach*: creativity is often associated to the domain of arts [22]. Recently, this scope has been widened to other areas of everyday life [27]. Hence, in the field of education, creativity can be developed in all curricular subjects, such as languages and science [28].

which can be fostered or hindered depending on the teaching strategies used [27].

as to attain their full potential in their everyday domains [27].

Creativity and education literature highlights a series of creative pedagogies, that is, teaching practices which contribute to the development of students' creativity. In a review of 210 pieces of educational research, Davies et al. [29] mentioned the flexible use of space and time, the study outside the classroom, collaborative and game-based learning approaches, as well as respectful relationships, non-prescriptive planning and the participation of educators as learners in the classroom activities.

Cremin and Barnes [30] outlined similar characteristics, i.e. an agency-oriented ethos, multimodal methodologies, exploration and discovery, risk-taking, tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty and safe and non-judgemental environments. In this line, Sawyer [31] considers the possibility to try before getting it right and the use of failure as a positive learning factor. The author also considers collaborative and improvisational practices which allow students for externalising their understandings and reflecting on their learning processes.

Barajas and Frossard [32] proposed a set of four main creative pedagogies, each one characterised by different components: (a) learner-centred approaches (matching curricular objectives with students' interests, making learning relevant and engaging, encouraging students' ownership and problem-solving, value learning processes above outcomes so to promote students' reflection on their learning trajectory), (b) open-ended ethos (providing space for uncertainty, exploration and spontaneity in a safe classroom environment), (c) synergistic collaboration (rich collaborative practices based on joint problem-solving and collective decision-making) and (d) knowledge connection (linking content to real-life situations, bridging different domains and disciplines and placing knowledge in a wider context).
