Forensic Anthropology: Skeletal Analysis and Techniques

*Biological Anthropology - Applications and Case Studies*

[62] Biasutti R. Le Razze e i Popoli della terra. 4th ed. Vol. 1-4. Torino: U.T.E.T;

evoluzione, uomo, ambiente. Torino:

[64] XLSTAT Statistical and Data Analysis Solution. New York, USA. Available from: https://www. xlstat.com, Addinsoft; 2020

[63] Facchini F. Antropologia:

UTET libreria; 1995

1967

Puglia "Sezione sudest barese". Vol. 2. Conversano, BA: Quaderni della sezione sudest barese, Studi in memoria di Claudio

Andrea L'Abbate; 2017. pp. 110-119

[54] Sperduti AG, Manzi L, Salvadei P. Passarello, I longobardi di La Selvicciola (Ischia di Castro, Viterbo). II. Morfologia e morfometria scheletrica. Rivista di Antropologia. 1995;**73**:265-279

[55] Pagni G, Mallegni F. Paleobiologia di un gruppo di inumati di epoca tardo antica da una villa rustica romana, rinvenuti in località S. Vincenzino di Cecina (Livorno). Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia.

[56] Kiszeli I. Esame antropologico dei resti scheletrici della necropoli longobarda di Castel Trosino, Atti e Memorie dell'Accademia Toscana di Scienze e Lettere "La Colombaria", XXV,

[57] Açsàdi G, Nemeskéri J. La population Szekesfehervar X et XI siècle. Annales Historico Naturales Musei Nationalis

examinations of skeletal material of the medieval "Gertrudenfriedhof", in Kiel compared with other north European skeletal series. Journal of Human Evolution. 1975;**4**:469-481

1998;**CXXVIII**:41-63

36. 1971. 113-161

Hungarici. 1959;**51**:493-564

[58] Henke W. Morphometrical

[59] Nowak O, Mosz E, Piontiek J. Anthropological characteristics of skeletal material from the cemetery of St. Nicholas Church in Elblag (13th

century). Poznan: UAM; 2013

in light of craniometric data:

[61] Penrose LS. Distance, size and shape. Annals of Eugenics.

[60] Sankina SRL. The Norse problem

Medieval population of northern and nothwestern Russia. Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia;**33/1**(2008):142-156

**42**

1954;**18**:337-343

**Chapter 3**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Forensic Anthropology

analysis of identification and other purposes.

those by which we can be acknowledged.

osteology, and forensic taphonomy [2].

**45**

**Keywords:** anthropology, archeology, osteology, skeleton, skull

*Purva Wagisha Upadhyay and Amarnath Mishra*

Physical anthropology has been making progress in the field of forensic science. Forensic anthropology is the study of identifying and establishing identity of the skeletal remains present at the crime scene. The purpose of the chapter is to throw a light on the field of forensic anthropology as it seeks data like age, sex, ethnic groups, and other characteristic features after the examination of the skeletal remains. Forensic anthropology helps in determining the manner and cause of death, and if the body is still in the decompositions stage, time since death can also be estimated. Advancement in forensic anthropology will not only help to solve the case but it will also increase the opportunity to work in this area. In this chapter, there is an explanation of some of the methods used in forensic anthropology for the

Anthropology is the scientific discipline of all features of creature progress and interface. It studies tools, language, ethnicity and social interactions, and how we relay to other societies. Physical anthropology studies human differences, especially

Forensic anthropology studies this identifying distinctiveness on the remnants of a person. These distinctive characters can be used to exhibit the sex, ethnic group, height, and physical health of a victim from his or her remains. Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology to the lawful process. Forensic anthropologists apply standard scientific techniques developed in physical anthropology to categorize human remains and to aid in the recognition of crime [1]. Forensic anthropologists are skilled like physical anthropologists who apply their expertise to solve cases of homicides by identifying the ethnic group; sex; age; stature; antemortem, postmortem, and perimortem injury time since death; and facial reconstruction (2D and 3D). Their job with law enforcement personnel includes scene search, excavation and recovery, questions of recognition, cause of death, manner and mode of death, and evaluation of time since death. The practice scope of this order is the identification of skeletonized remains, badly decomposed cadaver, anonymous human remains, and aging of persons, mass disaster and homicide victims, and unfairness of commingled skeletons or bones. Forensic anthropology is divided into subfields such as forensic archeology, forensic

Forensic archeology is a division of forensic science in which the appliance of archeological method is used in the examination of a scene of crime to recognize

evidence and for the crime scene reconstruction. The work of a forensic

### **Chapter 3**

## Forensic Anthropology

*Purva Wagisha Upadhyay and Amarnath Mishra*

#### **Abstract**

Physical anthropology has been making progress in the field of forensic science. Forensic anthropology is the study of identifying and establishing identity of the skeletal remains present at the crime scene. The purpose of the chapter is to throw a light on the field of forensic anthropology as it seeks data like age, sex, ethnic groups, and other characteristic features after the examination of the skeletal remains. Forensic anthropology helps in determining the manner and cause of death, and if the body is still in the decompositions stage, time since death can also be estimated. Advancement in forensic anthropology will not only help to solve the case but it will also increase the opportunity to work in this area. In this chapter, there is an explanation of some of the methods used in forensic anthropology for the analysis of identification and other purposes.

**Keywords:** anthropology, archeology, osteology, skeleton, skull

#### **1. Introduction**

Anthropology is the scientific discipline of all features of creature progress and interface. It studies tools, language, ethnicity and social interactions, and how we relay to other societies. Physical anthropology studies human differences, especially those by which we can be acknowledged.

Forensic anthropology studies this identifying distinctiveness on the remnants of a person. These distinctive characters can be used to exhibit the sex, ethnic group, height, and physical health of a victim from his or her remains. Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology to the lawful process. Forensic anthropologists apply standard scientific techniques developed in physical anthropology to categorize human remains and to aid in the recognition of crime [1]. Forensic anthropologists are skilled like physical anthropologists who apply their expertise to solve cases of homicides by identifying the ethnic group; sex; age; stature; antemortem, postmortem, and perimortem injury time since death; and facial reconstruction (2D and 3D). Their job with law enforcement personnel includes scene search, excavation and recovery, questions of recognition, cause of death, manner and mode of death, and evaluation of time since death. The practice scope of this order is the identification of skeletonized remains, badly decomposed cadaver, anonymous human remains, and aging of persons, mass disaster and homicide victims, and unfairness of commingled skeletons or bones. Forensic anthropology is divided into subfields such as forensic archeology, forensic osteology, and forensic taphonomy [2].

Forensic archeology is a division of forensic science in which the appliance of archeological method is used in the examination of a scene of crime to recognize evidence and for the crime scene reconstruction. The work of a forensic

Columbian Museum in Chicago. In the Luetgert trial of 1897–1898, Dorsey testified that the small remains recovered from material connected with the sausage vat were matched from a human female. His testimony was cruelly blamed by defense expert who argued that such determinations could not be through with poise from such minor evidence. In 1932, the FBI declared the opening of its first crime lab. The Smithsonian Institute became a working partner, aiding in the recognition of human remains. In 1939, the FBI published' Guide to the Identification of Human

Anthropologist William Krogman made available his book, "of Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material," in 1962. Forensic anthropologists use this textbook even today. "Skeletal age change sin young American males" was in print in 1954 by Tom Mckern and T. Dale Stewart. In this report, Mckern and Stewart recognized skeletal aging approach based on facts from skeletal remains of Korean War military. In the early 1960s, the computer was discovered; this enabled forensic anthropologists to use discriminant purpose study, a statistical system to categorize sex and origin of skeletal remains. More recently, a new practice in DNA originated in the mitochondria of cells has been used in detection. Thomas Wingate Todd was in charge for the compilation of human skeletons in 1912. In total, Todd got skulls and skeletons of humans, anthropoids and other mammals. Todd also developed age estimation based on physical individuality of the pubic symphysis. Though the principles have been bringing up to dated, these estimates a range of

All skeletal examinations start with Krogman's "big four"- age, sex, ethnic group, and stature. Each feature narrows the pool of possible "matches" considerably- sex alone cuts it by half. If a skeleton is absolute and unharmed, these aspects can be assessed with great correctness. Using the most recent systems, sex can be established with assurance, age estimated to within about 5 years, and stature approximated with a typical deviation of about 1.5″ (3.5 cm). However, forensic anthropologists are more likely to be dealing with incomplete, fragmented specimens so they must be equipped to glean as much information as probable from every bone. Demographic characteristics include ethnic group, age, sex, stature and

Ethnic group may be defined as coarse classificatory machinery for biological characteristics. Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid are the three foremost ethnic groups. However, there will always be ambiguous cases because of admixture. Moreover, there is huge variation within each group, and skin color is one of the aspects in racial categorization. In the skeleton, cranio-facial morphology is the finest pointer of racial phenotype. An extended, low, slender skull exhibiting alveolar prognathism and a broad, flat nose with gentle sills is typically negroids. Racial differences can be found in other parts of the body. Caucasoids have forward curvature of the femur but negroids have straight femur bone. Negroids have narrow pelvis, but measurements tell better. Size differentials reproduce disparities

in total body proportions. Negroids have proportionally longer limbs than Caucasoid; the reverse holds true for mongoloids (**Figure 2** and **Table 1**) [6, 7].

Skeletal Material".

*Forensic Anthropology*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93712*

skeletonized remains.

**2.1 Demography**

build [5].

**47**

**2.2 Ethnic group**

**2. Biological profiling of skeletal remains**

archeologist is to excavate and recover the human remains, weapons, etc. The procedure of forensic archeology is generally the same as that used by the conventional archeologist. In earlier 10 years, the fields of forensic archeology have developed as a key coordinator in the cases of mass death. In 1976, Morse, Crusoe, and Smith were the first to describe the theory of forensic archeology. As per the evolution in forensic archeology, the archeologist has transferred the technical approach for investigate and rescuing evidences to a forensic procedure. The archeological practices such as excavation, evidence identification, recovering the remains, and the study have followed a new approach to the particular type of scene of crime. Forensic archeologists apply their understanding of excavation steps just to be sure that the skeletal remains are collected in a particular manner and they are acceptable as evidence in the court of law. Forensic archeologists also establish the site of grave which might had been overlooked. The archeologist can situate the site of grave which can be seen in the soil's dissimilarity by the darker and looser organic soil in the region of those areas [3] **Figure 1**).

#### **1.1 History**

In Europe in the 1800s, the genesis of the ethnic groups of humans was intensely agitated. Scientists began with skull dimensions to make a distinction among those. The differences between male and female framework, and the evolution, aging, and fusing of bones were also examined, laying the structure for today's awareness. Jeffries Wyman (1814–1874) represents a key early pathfinder of forensic anthropology evidence. Wyman had a medical degree from Harvard University and was the first administrator of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology in 1866. His evidence in the trial of Harvard professor of chemistry John W. Webster, accused of the murder of Dr. George Parkman, captivated widespread media, and scholarly notice. At Harvard in 1894, Thomas Dwight gave his lecture about the study of human skeletal remains in a lawful setting (i.e., forensic anthropology). Thus, he was rightfully hailed as the "Father of Forensic Anthropology [4]."

Another nineteenth century murder trail brought well-known notice to anthropological testimony. In Chicago, Adolph Luetgert, a sausage producer, was hold responsible of assassinating his wife and disposing of the dead body by inserting it in a solution of potash in one of the factory vats. Investigation of the remains exposed minute remains that were bought to the notice of Dorsey of the Field

#### *Forensic Anthropology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93712*

Columbian Museum in Chicago. In the Luetgert trial of 1897–1898, Dorsey testified that the small remains recovered from material connected with the sausage vat were matched from a human female. His testimony was cruelly blamed by defense expert who argued that such determinations could not be through with poise from such minor evidence. In 1932, the FBI declared the opening of its first crime lab. The Smithsonian Institute became a working partner, aiding in the recognition of human remains. In 1939, the FBI published' Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material".

Anthropologist William Krogman made available his book, "of Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material," in 1962. Forensic anthropologists use this textbook even today. "Skeletal age change sin young American males" was in print in 1954 by Tom Mckern and T. Dale Stewart. In this report, Mckern and Stewart recognized skeletal aging approach based on facts from skeletal remains of Korean War military. In the early 1960s, the computer was discovered; this enabled forensic anthropologists to use discriminant purpose study, a statistical system to categorize sex and origin of skeletal remains. More recently, a new practice in DNA originated in the mitochondria of cells has been used in detection. Thomas Wingate Todd was in charge for the compilation of human skeletons in 1912. In total, Todd got skulls and skeletons of humans, anthropoids and other mammals. Todd also developed age estimation based on physical individuality of the pubic symphysis. Though the principles have been bringing up to dated, these estimates a range of skeletonized remains.

### **2. Biological profiling of skeletal remains**

#### **2.1 Demography**

archeologist is to excavate and recover the human remains, weapons, etc. The procedure of forensic archeology is generally the same as that used by the conventional archeologist. In earlier 10 years, the fields of forensic archeology have developed as a key coordinator in the cases of mass death. In 1976, Morse, Crusoe, and Smith were the first to describe the theory of forensic archeology. As per the evolution in forensic archeology, the archeologist has transferred the technical approach for investigate and rescuing evidences to a forensic procedure. The archeological practices such as excavation, evidence identification, recovering the remains, and the study have followed a new approach to the particular type of scene of crime. Forensic archeologists apply their understanding of excavation steps just to be sure that the skeletal remains are collected in a particular manner and they are acceptable as evidence in the court of law. Forensic archeologists also establish the site of grave which might had been overlooked. The archeologist can situate the site of grave which can be seen in the soil's dissimilarity by the darker and looser organic

In Europe in the 1800s, the genesis of the ethnic groups of humans was intensely agitated. Scientists began with skull dimensions to make a distinction among those. The differences between male and female framework, and the evolution, aging, and fusing of bones were also examined, laying the structure for today's awareness. Jeffries Wyman (1814–1874) represents a key early pathfinder of forensic anthropology evidence. Wyman had a medical degree from Harvard University and was the first administrator of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology in 1866. His evidence in the trial of Harvard professor of chemistry John W. Webster, accused of the murder of Dr. George Parkman, captivated widespread media, and scholarly notice. At Harvard in 1894, Thomas Dwight gave his lecture about the study of human skeletal remains in a lawful setting (i.e., forensic anthropology). Thus, he was rightfully hailed as the "Father of Forensic

Another nineteenth century murder trail brought well-known notice to anthropological testimony. In Chicago, Adolph Luetgert, a sausage producer, was hold responsible of assassinating his wife and disposing of the dead body by inserting it in a solution of potash in one of the factory vats. Investigation of the remains exposed minute remains that were bought to the notice of Dorsey of the Field

soil in the region of those areas [3] **Figure 1**).

*Biological Anthropology - Applications and Case Studies*

**1.1 History**

**Figure 1.** *The skull.*

Anthropology [4]."

**46**

All skeletal examinations start with Krogman's "big four"- age, sex, ethnic group, and stature. Each feature narrows the pool of possible "matches" considerably- sex alone cuts it by half. If a skeleton is absolute and unharmed, these aspects can be assessed with great correctness. Using the most recent systems, sex can be established with assurance, age estimated to within about 5 years, and stature approximated with a typical deviation of about 1.5″ (3.5 cm). However, forensic anthropologists are more likely to be dealing with incomplete, fragmented specimens so they must be equipped to glean as much information as probable from every bone. Demographic characteristics include ethnic group, age, sex, stature and build [5].

#### **2.2 Ethnic group**

Ethnic group may be defined as coarse classificatory machinery for biological characteristics. Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid are the three foremost ethnic groups. However, there will always be ambiguous cases because of admixture. Moreover, there is huge variation within each group, and skin color is one of the aspects in racial categorization. In the skeleton, cranio-facial morphology is the finest pointer of racial phenotype. An extended, low, slender skull exhibiting alveolar prognathism and a broad, flat nose with gentle sills is typically negroids. Racial differences can be found in other parts of the body. Caucasoids have forward curvature of the femur but negroids have straight femur bone. Negroids have narrow pelvis, but measurements tell better. Size differentials reproduce disparities in total body proportions. Negroids have proportionally longer limbs than Caucasoid; the reverse holds true for mongoloids (**Figure 2** and **Table 1**) [6, 7].

**2.3 Sex**

*Forensic Anthropology*

**2.4 Age**

**Figure 3.** *The pelvic girdle.*

**49**

tain the straight, juvenile arrangement.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93712*

accurately (**Figure 3** and **Table 2**) [8, 9].

If the adult skeleton is absolute or at least has an unbroken pelvis, the sex can usually be determined with 100% accuracy. However, as mentioned earlier, forensic skeletons are hardly ever complete, and the available bones may not be obviously dimorphic. There is no marker that helps in the distinction of primary sexual features. Although gender differences have been quantified in immature skeletons, they remain subtle until secondary sex characteristics begin increasing during adolescence. Attempt at sexing pre-pubescent bones have been completed by means of measurements of growth-based differences between males and females, but the outcome is far from reality. In adults, sex can be determined by the evaluation of pelvis [6]. A systematic data of cranial morphology can allow experts to come up to 90 to 95% accuracy. However, the observer must be well known with population-specific variants because sex-linked distinctiveness varies from one group to another. In adult males, it has been observed that the posterior ramus has a separate angulations or flexure at the level of the occlusal surface of the molars, whereas females main-

The bony skeletal arrangement is not absolute at beginning, but somewhat begins with the configuration and development of centers of ossification. Till the commencement of teenage years, there are diaphysis (shaft) and epiphyses at both the ends of long bones. These are linked by cartilaginous metaphysis or emergent regions that are replaced with bone when development is absolute. Because development at every bony joint is finished at different ages and in a set order, following the succession of epiphyseal union will permit age estimation to within 1 year from about 13 through 18 years. If adolescent is between 13 and 18 years, merging of lower epiphysis and opening of proximal epiphysis in the humerus bone is

observed. Age is then determined by fusion of joints in the body. Once development is inclusive, age estimation becomes a great deal and more difficult because post maturity age changes are subtle, uneven, and often extremely variable from one individual to the next because remodeling rates and patterns are sensitive to a many of internal and external factors. The sterna end of the rib is proving to be the mainly reliable form of age estimation. In evaluation of pubic symphysis and ribs from the similar persons indicated that the rib was two times as possible to imitate age


#### **Table 1.**

*Differentiating features and points between ethnic groups.*

#### **2.3 Sex**

If the adult skeleton is absolute or at least has an unbroken pelvis, the sex can usually be determined with 100% accuracy. However, as mentioned earlier, forensic skeletons are hardly ever complete, and the available bones may not be obviously dimorphic. There is no marker that helps in the distinction of primary sexual features. Although gender differences have been quantified in immature skeletons, they remain subtle until secondary sex characteristics begin increasing during adolescence. Attempt at sexing pre-pubescent bones have been completed by means of measurements of growth-based differences between males and females, but the outcome is far from reality. In adults, sex can be determined by the evaluation of pelvis [6].

A systematic data of cranial morphology can allow experts to come up to 90 to 95% accuracy. However, the observer must be well known with population-specific variants because sex-linked distinctiveness varies from one group to another. In adult males, it has been observed that the posterior ramus has a separate angulations or flexure at the level of the occlusal surface of the molars, whereas females maintain the straight, juvenile arrangement.

#### **2.4 Age**

**Figure 2.** *Mandible.*

**Characteristics Europeans**

Nasal spine Prominent,

Chin Square and

Anterior curvature of femur Bone

**Table 1.**

**48**

**origin**

*Biological Anthropology - Applications and Case Studies*

large, or long

Zygoma Single Forward projecting (extra

Cranial suture Simple Complex and/ or with

projecting

*Differentiating features and points between ethnic groups.*

Protrusion of jaws [7] Orthognathic Prognathic Prognathic

Nasal sill Single and sharp Single and sharp Double or guttered

Dentition More crowded Less crowded Less crowded

Incisors Blade shape Shovel shape Blade shape Palatal suture Arched or jagged Straight Not straight Maxillary molars Carabelli's cusps Four cusps Four cusps

bone present)

Palate Narrow Wide Intermediate palate width Dental row Parabolic curve Simple elliptical (rounded) Hyperbolic curve (U-shape)

sutural bones

More curved Straighter Straighter

Cranium High Low and sloping Low and with post-

Blunt Retreating

Nasal aperture Narrow Medium Wide

**Asian origin African origin**

Medium, tilted Little or no nasal spine

Single

Simple

bregmatic depression

The bony skeletal arrangement is not absolute at beginning, but somewhat begins with the configuration and development of centers of ossification. Till the commencement of teenage years, there are diaphysis (shaft) and epiphyses at both the ends of long bones. These are linked by cartilaginous metaphysis or emergent regions that are replaced with bone when development is absolute. Because development at every bony joint is finished at different ages and in a set order, following the succession of epiphyseal union will permit age estimation to within 1 year from about 13 through 18 years. If adolescent is between 13 and 18 years, merging of lower epiphysis and opening of proximal epiphysis in the humerus bone is observed. Age is then determined by fusion of joints in the body. Once development is inclusive, age estimation becomes a great deal and more difficult because post maturity age changes are subtle, uneven, and often extremely variable from one individual to the next because remodeling rates and patterns are sensitive to a many of internal and external factors. The sterna end of the rib is proving to be the mainly reliable form of age estimation. In evaluation of pubic symphysis and ribs from the similar persons indicated that the rib was two times as possible to imitate age accurately (**Figure 3** and **Table 2**) [8, 9].

**Figure 3.** *The pelvic girdle.*


#### **Table 2.**

*Differentiating features between male and female for sex determination.*

Several methods are there for the estimation of age with their advantages and disadvantages. No aging technique is even close to 100% accuracy. There are two sources of fault: (1) individual difference as reported in the standard deviation of the way and (2) differences between the sample population and the population of origin. No aging process should be used without help unless there is no choice. Choice of method is, of course, limited when partial or fragmentary remains are the only material accessible. Always offer a range when estimating age. It is far better to include a 10- to 12-year age range, particularly in big individuals, and be successful in matching the lost person by other individuality than to give a 3- to 5-year range and miss the recognition entirely (**Table 3**) [10].

**2.5 Stature**

*Age determination in male and female.*

**Table 3.**

**51**

Usually and together, the femur and tibia are the majority significant main elements of height. Therefore, the greatest evaluation of height is acquired from regression formulae resultant from femoral and tibial lengths. These equations have been intended for all of the long bones and long bones give more preciseness than arm bones, it may be the only parts establish attempts have been made to amplify accurateness by using the combined assistance of multiple bones. Body proportions differ by both ethnic group and sex. Negroids, for instance, have long limb bones comparative to stature than Caucasoid. Thus, it is essential for determining sex and

**Characteristic Age estimation**

Basioccipital fusion with occipital 5–7 years

Mandibular symphysis fusion 6–8 months

Coracoid Process in scapula 15–17 years Glenoid epiphysis 17–18 years Acromial epiphysis 20 years Ribs' head epiphysis 17–25 years Segment 3 and 4 of sternum 4–10 years Segment 2 with 3–4 of sternum 11–16 years Segment 1 with 2–3–4 of sternum 15–20 years Xiphoid to body 40+ years Xiphoid appearance 3–6 years

Lateral portion of occipital bone fusion with

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93712*

squamous bone

*Forensic Anthropology*

Metopic suture fusion [7] Closure by 1–2 years, fusion by 7–8 years

Fusion of occipital with sphenoid 11–16 years (in females), 13–18 years

Medial clavicular epiphysis Mid-twenties or 15–35 years

Transverse lines (S1 and S2) in sacrum Mid-twenties or later

Ischiopubic ramus 5–8 years Acetabulum 11–17 years Ischial tuberosity 16–20 years

Humerus distal epiphysis 11–15 years female, 12–17 years male Humerus proximal epiphysis 13–17 years female, 16–20 years males Radial distal epiphysis 11–13 years female, 14–17 years male Radial proximal epiphysis 14–17 years female, 16–20 years male

Femoral distal epiphysis 14–18 years female, 16–20 years male Femoral head fusion 12–16 years female, 14–19 years male Tibial distal epiphysis 14–16 years female, 15–18 years male Tibial proximal epiphysis 13–17 years female, 15–19 years male

1–3 years

(in males)

ethnic group in sort to make use of the correct regression formulae for the


#### **Table 3.**

Several methods are there for the estimation of age with their advantages and disadvantages. No aging technique is even close to 100% accuracy. There are two sources of fault: (1) individual difference as reported in the standard deviation of the way and (2) differences between the sample population and the population of origin. No aging process should be used without help unless there is no choice. Choice of method is, of course, limited when partial or fragmentary remains are the only material accessible. Always offer a range when estimating age. It is far better to include a 10- to 12-year age range, particularly in big individuals, and be successful in matching the lost person by other individuality than to give a 3- to 5-year range and miss the recognition entirely

**Characteristics Male Female** Occipital protuberance [7] More prominent Less prominent Mastoid process Larger Smaller Supraorbital ridges Prominent Absent Upper orbital margin Rounded Sharper

flared

robust

Flatter, broader, and smaller

Body is less than twice the manubrium

length

Chin Squared, protuberant Rounded or pointed

Ribs' ends' appearance Crab claw-like Rough planar end

Pubic body Triangular Rectangular Subpubic angle Narrow Wide Subpubic concavity Absent Developed Parturition pits Absent Developed

Narrow, chin less

Wider and larger pelvic inlet

angled

Ramus of mandible Wide, sharply angled,

*Biological Anthropology - Applications and Case Studies*

Pelvis Larger and more

**Characteristics Male Female** Ilium [7] Narrow Wide

narrower

Humerus head diameter >47 mm <43 mm Radius head diameter ≥24 mm ≤21 mm Femur head diameter 47.5 mm 42.5 mm

Knee Larger Smaller Zygomatic arch Broader Narrower

*Differentiating features between male and female for sex determination.*

Sternum Body is more than twice as

Sacrum More curved, longer, and

Muscle attachment in

pelvis

**Table 2.**

Sciatic notch Narrow and deep Wide and shallow

Q-angle in femur bone Smaller (11.2 3) Larger (15.8 4.5)

large the manubrium length

More Less

Ossification of ribs Marginal Central

(**Table 3**) [10].

**50**

*Age determination in male and female.*

#### **2.5 Stature**

Usually and together, the femur and tibia are the majority significant main elements of height. Therefore, the greatest evaluation of height is acquired from regression formulae resultant from femoral and tibial lengths. These equations have been intended for all of the long bones and long bones give more preciseness than arm bones, it may be the only parts establish attempts have been made to amplify accurateness by using the combined assistance of multiple bones. Body proportions differ by both ethnic group and sex. Negroids, for instance, have long limb bones comparative to stature than Caucasoid. Thus, it is essential for determining sex and ethnic group in sort to make use of the correct regression formulae for the

evaluation of stature. Trotter standards are used for Caucasoid and negroids. Smooth bony surfaces and minute muscle origins are trait of a gracile or sedentary individual. It is significant to keep in mind that although males inherently have extra muscle mass than females, males will not have as well-developed attachment sites as female body builders. All small people do not necessarily have slender builds; conversely, huge height is not always linked to massiveness. Although standard weight can be approximated for a known height, there is no technique to establish obesity from the skeleton. The formulae for stature estimation differ by sex and ethnic group, so it is worthwhile to know the sex and ethnic group of the focus before commencement of stature analysis. Long bones are often measured on an osteometric board. The large sliding calipers used for measuring tree diameters are also extremely helpful. Most long bone measurements are easy utmost lengths. This includes the measurement of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, and fibula. The tibia is a bit extra complicated. The femur is now and then measured with both condyles in contact with the osteometric board. This is called the bicondylar length or oblique length and is particularly helpful because it orients the femur in anatomical location. Bicondylar length provides information about sex as well as stature. After measuring each bone according to directives, insert the measurement into the suitable formulae (**Figure 4** and **Table 4**) [6, 10].

**3. Methods used in forensic anthropology investigation**

classified as:

**Table 4.**

*Forensic Anthropology*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93712*

*Stature estimation using Glesser formula.*

60% [11, 12].

**53**

manual sketching method (2D).

the court of law is corroborative [10].

In the field of forensic science, successful recovery and examination of DNA has a massive impact. In forensic anthropology, exact knowledge related to sex of the unidentified remains can be represent and offer to identity to it through molecular examination. The molecular analysis is also being used for establishing ancestry evaluation and for detection of species. Determining identification with the help of DNA has played the most important role in the field of analysis. Whether the tooth or the bone needs to be analyzed during the examination of skeletal remains. As DNA test is costly as well as destructive also, these are decisive and influences the outcome of the analysis. For Human Identification from the skull is generally

**Ethnic group Bone Male Female** European Humerus 2.89 \* L + 78.10 4.75 3.36 \* L + 57.97 4.45

> Radius 3.79 \* L + 79.42 4.66 4.74 \* L + 54.93 4.24 Ulna 3.76 \* L + 75.55 4.72 4.27 \* L + 57.76 4.30 Femur 2.32 \* L + 65.53 3.94 2.47 \* L + 54.10 3.72 Tibia 2.42 \* L + 81.93 4.00 2.90 \* L + 61.53 3.66 Fibula 2.60 \* L + 75.50 3.86 2.93 \* L + 59.61 3.57

A. Reconstruction Method: Reconstruction method proposes only possibilities and probabilities without certainty of as many criterions of individualization from the skull, like ethnic group, age, sex, stature, etc., as possible. Types: (a) Modeling clay method (3D), (b) computer software programs (2D), and (c)

B. Comparative Method: Comparative method gives a high degree of reliability and precision where the photographs and radiographs are used for evaluation with the skull. Types: (a) Metric measurements and (b) superimposition: (i) Negative SI and (ii) Video SI. Evidential value of superimposition technique in

**Radiography:** Sex determination is one of the most confused puzzles, which needs to be solved by radiographic examination. Sexual dimorphism represented by the skeletal system determines the accuracy with which the skeleton can be identified. There are different morphological features between males and females. For example, in negroids, left side frontal sinuses gave accuracy in sex determination by

**Radiocarbon dating:** It is one of the most used methods for determining the age of the skeleton. The amount of Carbon-14 obtained from the skeleton remains or

**X-Ray fluorescence (XRF):** X-Ray fluorescence is used for the determining of mineral content of bone such as Zn, Pb, and Fe. The presence of these elements at different quantity helps in determination of diet of an individual and the abundance

any other part helps in determining the age of the remains [13, 14].

**Figure 4.** *Lower limb bones.*


#### **Table 4.**

evaluation of stature. Trotter standards are used for Caucasoid and negroids. Smooth bony surfaces and minute muscle origins are trait of a gracile or sedentary individual. It is significant to keep in mind that although males inherently have extra muscle mass than females, males will not have as well-developed attachment sites as female body builders. All small people do not necessarily have slender builds; conversely, huge height is not always linked to massiveness. Although standard weight can be approximated for a known height, there is no technique to establish obesity from the skeleton. The formulae for stature estimation differ by sex and ethnic group, so it is worthwhile to know the sex and ethnic group of the focus before commencement of stature analysis. Long bones are often measured on an osteometric board. The large sliding calipers used for measuring tree diameters are also extremely helpful. Most long bone measurements are easy utmost lengths. This includes the measurement of the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, and fibula. The tibia is a bit extra complicated. The femur is now and then measured with both condyles in contact with the osteometric board. This is called the bicondylar length or oblique length and is particularly helpful because it orients the femur in anatomical location. Bicondylar length provides information about sex as well as stature. After measuring each bone according to directives, insert the measurement into the

suitable formulae (**Figure 4** and **Table 4**) [6, 10].

*Biological Anthropology - Applications and Case Studies*

**Figure 4.** *Lower limb bones.*

**52**

*Stature estimation using Glesser formula.*

### **3. Methods used in forensic anthropology investigation**

In the field of forensic science, successful recovery and examination of DNA has a massive impact. In forensic anthropology, exact knowledge related to sex of the unidentified remains can be represent and offer to identity to it through molecular examination. The molecular analysis is also being used for establishing ancestry evaluation and for detection of species. Determining identification with the help of DNA has played the most important role in the field of analysis. Whether the tooth or the bone needs to be analyzed during the examination of skeletal remains. As DNA test is costly as well as destructive also, these are decisive and influences the outcome of the analysis. For Human Identification from the skull is generally classified as:


**Radiography:** Sex determination is one of the most confused puzzles, which needs to be solved by radiographic examination. Sexual dimorphism represented by the skeletal system determines the accuracy with which the skeleton can be identified. There are different morphological features between males and females. For example, in negroids, left side frontal sinuses gave accuracy in sex determination by 60% [11, 12].

**Radiocarbon dating:** It is one of the most used methods for determining the age of the skeleton. The amount of Carbon-14 obtained from the skeleton remains or any other part helps in determining the age of the remains [13, 14].

**X-Ray fluorescence (XRF):** X-Ray fluorescence is used for the determining of mineral content of bone such as Zn, Pb, and Fe. The presence of these elements at different quantity helps in determination of diet of an individual and the abundance of these elements in the bones also helps in determining the area to which an individual belongs. The main advantage of this technique is that this technique takes very less time for examination [15].

**References**

*Forensic Anthropology*

Bacon; 2008

CRC Press; 2012

pp. 87-97

19 August 2015]

21 August 2015]

pp. 101-135

**55**

Justice. 2003;**43**:187-192

Humana Press; 2008

[1] Adams BJ, Byrd JE. Recovery, Analysis and Identification of

Commingled Human Remains. Totowa:

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93712*

[11] Erhisenebe D, Eboh O, Ogbeide OU,

anthropometric study of frontal sinus for sex determination in Benin City, South-South Nigeria. Journal of Forensic

[13] Lynnerup N. Forensic anthropology and human identification. Scandinavian Journal of Forensic Science. 2019;**19**(1):

[14] Ramsey CB. Dealing with outliers and offsets in radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon. 2009;**51**(3):1023-1045

[15] Gonzalez-Rodriguez J, Fowler G. Chemical anthropology: A study on the discrimination of human skeletons using X-ray fluorescence and chemometric tools. Forensic Science International.

[16] Schmitt A, Cunha E, Pinheiro J. Forensic Anthropology and Medicine Complementary Sciences from Recovery to Cause of Death. Totowa,

2013;**231**(1–3):407

NJ: Humana Press; 2006

Dental Sciences. 2017;**9**(1):31-35

[12] Mostafa EM, El-Elemi AH, El-Beblawy MA, Dawood AE-WA. Adult sex identification using digital radiographs of the proximal epiphysis of the femur at Suez Canal University Hospital in Ismailia, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2012;**2**(3):

81-88

16-38

Ivwighren T. Radiographic

[2] Byers SN. Introduction to Forensic Anthropology. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and

[3] Dupras TL. Forensic Recovery of Human Remains: Archaeological Approaches. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, Fla:

[4] Black S. Forensic anthropology– regulation in the U.K. Science and

[5] Cattaneo C. Forensic anthropology: Developments of a classical discipline in the new millennium. Forensic Science International. 2007;**165**:185-193

[6] Hill I. Physical appearance. In: Thompson T, Black S, editors. Forensic Human Identification: An Introduction. London: CRC Press; 2007.

[7] Identification of Skeletal Remains (PDF). November 5, 2010. Available from: forensicjournals.com [Accessed:

[8] Differences between Male Skull and Female Skull. September 24, 2008. Available from: juniordentist.com [Accessed: 19 August 2015]

Forensic Anthropology (PDF). June 27, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15 [Accessed:

[9] Nawrocki SP. An Outline Of

[10] James SH, Nordby JJ. Forensic Anthropology. Forensic Science: An Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Techniques. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press; 2009.

### **4. Conclusion**

Forensic anthropology has many disciplines, one of which is forensic osteology. Forensic anthropology is mainly for the study of basic identification like estimating age, ethnic group, sex, and stature from the skeletal remains. Anthropologists might get several evidences that may indicate the cause of death and manner of death, and if the flesh is found on the skeleton, which means the body is still under the decomposition stage, the time since death can be narrowed down easily by gathering all the necessary information from the skeletal remains; a biological profile of the individuals can tell us how they lived and the manner of their death [16]. Forensic anthropology has already made progress in its field. The advancement in forensic anthropology is only possible and dependent on the advancement of the older technique and by creating new techniques based on the type of cases. Forensic anthropology plays a major role in identifying and establishing the identity in an investigation. The main application of anthropology is to process the sight of crime, inspect the remains, and to generate a profile of the skeletal remains found at the scene of crime to testify it in the court of law.

#### **Author details**

Purva Wagisha Upadhyay and Amarnath Mishra\* Amity Institute of Forensic Sciences, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India

\*Address all correspondence to: amishra5@amity.edu; drmishraa1@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Forensic Anthropology DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93712*

#### **References**

of these elements in the bones also helps in determining the area to which an individual belongs. The main advantage of this technique is that this technique

if the flesh is found on the skeleton, which means the body is still under the decomposition stage, the time since death can be narrowed down easily by gathering all the necessary information from the skeletal remains; a biological profile of the individuals can tell us how they lived and the manner of their death [16]. Forensic anthropology has already made progress in its field. The advancement in forensic anthropology is only possible and dependent on the advancement of the older technique and by creating new techniques based on the type of cases. Forensic anthropology plays a major role in identifying and establishing the identity in an investigation. The main application of anthropology is to process the sight of crime, inspect the remains, and to generate a profile of the skeletal remains found at the

Forensic anthropology has many disciplines, one of which is forensic osteology. Forensic anthropology is mainly for the study of basic identification like estimating age, ethnic group, sex, and stature from the skeletal remains. Anthropologists might get several evidences that may indicate the cause of death and manner of death, and

takes very less time for examination [15].

*Biological Anthropology - Applications and Case Studies*

scene of crime to testify it in the court of law.

Purva Wagisha Upadhyay and Amarnath Mishra\*

provided the original work is properly cited.

Amity Institute of Forensic Sciences, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: amishra5@amity.edu; drmishraa1@gmail.com

**4. Conclusion**

**Author details**

**54**

[1] Adams BJ, Byrd JE. Recovery, Analysis and Identification of Commingled Human Remains. Totowa: Humana Press; 2008

[2] Byers SN. Introduction to Forensic Anthropology. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon; 2008

[3] Dupras TL. Forensic Recovery of Human Remains: Archaeological Approaches. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press; 2012

[4] Black S. Forensic anthropology– regulation in the U.K. Science and Justice. 2003;**43**:187-192

[5] Cattaneo C. Forensic anthropology: Developments of a classical discipline in the new millennium. Forensic Science International. 2007;**165**:185-193

[6] Hill I. Physical appearance. In: Thompson T, Black S, editors. Forensic Human Identification: An Introduction. London: CRC Press; 2007. pp. 87-97

[7] Identification of Skeletal Remains (PDF). November 5, 2010. Available from: forensicjournals.com [Accessed: 19 August 2015]

[8] Differences between Male Skull and Female Skull. September 24, 2008. Available from: juniordentist.com [Accessed: 19 August 2015]

[9] Nawrocki SP. An Outline Of Forensic Anthropology (PDF). June 27, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15 [Accessed: 21 August 2015]

[10] James SH, Nordby JJ. Forensic Anthropology. Forensic Science: An Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Techniques. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press; 2009. pp. 101-135

[11] Erhisenebe D, Eboh O, Ogbeide OU, Ivwighren T. Radiographic anthropometric study of frontal sinus for sex determination in Benin City, South-South Nigeria. Journal of Forensic Dental Sciences. 2017;**9**(1):31-35

[12] Mostafa EM, El-Elemi AH, El-Beblawy MA, Dawood AE-WA. Adult sex identification using digital radiographs of the proximal epiphysis of the femur at Suez Canal University Hospital in Ismailia, Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2012;**2**(3): 81-88

[13] Lynnerup N. Forensic anthropology and human identification. Scandinavian Journal of Forensic Science. 2019;**19**(1): 16-38

[14] Ramsey CB. Dealing with outliers and offsets in radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon. 2009;**51**(3):1023-1045

[15] Gonzalez-Rodriguez J, Fowler G. Chemical anthropology: A study on the discrimination of human skeletons using X-ray fluorescence and chemometric tools. Forensic Science International. 2013;**231**(1–3):407

[16] Schmitt A, Cunha E, Pinheiro J. Forensic Anthropology and Medicine Complementary Sciences from Recovery to Cause of Death. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press; 2006

**57**

Section 4

Ancient Cranial Surgery:

Cranial Trepanation

Section 4
