Diversity of Invasive Species

**3**

**Chapter 1**

**Abstract**

Invasive Alien Flora in and around

Invasive alien species are non-native exotic organisms which can disperse and destroy the biodiversity and change the ecosystem. The present study deals with the comprehensive list of invasive alien plants (IAPs) of Rourkela Steel City, Sundargarh, Odisha, with background information on family, habit, and nativity. A total of 165 invasive alien species under 132 genera and 59 families have been recorded. From the nativity study, among 25 geographic regions, the majority of invasive plants reported from American continent (62%) with 103 species. While in life form analysis, the herbs (114 species) are dominant, followed by trees (23 species), shrubs (22 species), climber (5 species), and undershrub (1 species). *Ageratum conyzoides*, *Blumea lacera*, *Cassia alata*, *Lantana camara*, *Cassia tora*, *Parthenium hysterophorus*, *Xanthium* sp., *Datura* sp., *Cardamine scutata*, *Argemone mexicana*, *Grangea maderaspatana*, *Hyptis suaveolens*, and *Gnaphalium polycaulon* are some noxious species found during the study. *Parthenium hysterophorus* is the highly noxious plant which is grown everywhere after *Ageratum conyzoides* and *Lantana camara*. Most of the invasive species are locally used for medicinal purposes as well as for food, fuel, and fodder purposes. A better planning and reporting of the spread of new plants in the area are needed for early identification and control of the invasive alien plant species in different seasons. Since the flora of Sundargarh districts has not been beneficially explored, this study will help in the compilation of flora of Sundargarh district and Rourkela in particular. Further studies will reveal the allelopathic effects on different agricultural crops as

an Urban Area of India

*Sanjeet Kumar and Sudam C. Sahu*

well as the different ethnobotanical values.

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** invasive alien plants, biodiversity, utility, urban area, India

Human beings depend on plants for his daily needs for which several numbers of plants are used to fulfill their purposes. Sometimes to fulfill human needs, plants are introduced intentionally by humans or accidentally from one region to another new region which is nonnative. These introduced plant species are called alien species or exotic species. The alien species invade the new region after well adapted to the environment. The plants which are introduced by human intentionally or accidentally by migration from its natural habitat to another new habit and their localities are known as alien, introduced, and exotic, originated from foreign or nonnative species [25, 33]. They have the potential to grow in any environmental conditions and are easily invasive to the new environment. Preston and Williams

*Samarendra Narayan Mallick, Nirius Xenan Ekka,* 

#### **Chapter 1**

## Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India

*Samarendra Narayan Mallick, Nirius Xenan Ekka, Sanjeet Kumar and Sudam C. Sahu*

#### **Abstract**

Invasive alien species are non-native exotic organisms which can disperse and destroy the biodiversity and change the ecosystem. The present study deals with the comprehensive list of invasive alien plants (IAPs) of Rourkela Steel City, Sundargarh, Odisha, with background information on family, habit, and nativity. A total of 165 invasive alien species under 132 genera and 59 families have been recorded. From the nativity study, among 25 geographic regions, the majority of invasive plants reported from American continent (62%) with 103 species. While in life form analysis, the herbs (114 species) are dominant, followed by trees (23 species), shrubs (22 species), climber (5 species), and undershrub (1 species). *Ageratum conyzoides*, *Blumea lacera*, *Cassia alata*, *Lantana camara*, *Cassia tora*, *Parthenium hysterophorus*, *Xanthium* sp., *Datura* sp., *Cardamine scutata*, *Argemone mexicana*, *Grangea maderaspatana*, *Hyptis suaveolens*, and *Gnaphalium polycaulon* are some noxious species found during the study. *Parthenium hysterophorus* is the highly noxious plant which is grown everywhere after *Ageratum conyzoides* and *Lantana camara*. Most of the invasive species are locally used for medicinal purposes as well as for food, fuel, and fodder purposes. A better planning and reporting of the spread of new plants in the area are needed for early identification and control of the invasive alien plant species in different seasons. Since the flora of Sundargarh districts has not been beneficially explored, this study will help in the compilation of flora of Sundargarh district and Rourkela in particular. Further studies will reveal the allelopathic effects on different agricultural crops as well as the different ethnobotanical values.

**Keywords:** invasive alien plants, biodiversity, utility, urban area, India

#### **1. Introduction**

Human beings depend on plants for his daily needs for which several numbers of plants are used to fulfill their purposes. Sometimes to fulfill human needs, plants are introduced intentionally by humans or accidentally from one region to another new region which is nonnative. These introduced plant species are called alien species or exotic species. The alien species invade the new region after well adapted to the environment. The plants which are introduced by human intentionally or accidentally by migration from its natural habitat to another new habit and their localities are known as alien, introduced, and exotic, originated from foreign or nonnative species [25, 33]. They have the potential to grow in any environmental conditions and are easily invasive to the new environment. Preston and Williams

[22] stated that "Invasive alien plant species (IAPs)" are grown in such a way that they become as more dangerous to sustainable development. As a result, we are facing the great challenge of biodiversity loss all over the globe. These group of plant species act as the main cause for threat to the native biological diversity. They show various effects on the environment and economy of nonnative ecosystems. The exotic or alien plant species not only show negative impacts, but also they have much economic benefits. Now invasion alien species are cultivated to provide food, medicine, fuel, or fodder to local communities [9, 29]. The international trade of the products is helpful for introduction of these invasive alien species. Globally the introduction of IAPs leads to the huge loss of biodiversity and agriculture crops and health problems like respiratory illness [19].

Invasion of plants creates serious problems to the ecosystems by changing the structure, composition, and function of natural ecosystem [15, 17]. The rapid reproduction and growth rate, high dispersal ability, physiological adaptations to new conditions, and ability to survive on various ecosystems are the common characteristics of invasive plants. The IAPs have the ability to associate with human beings very easily. When the invasive plants colonized to grow in new areas, it can change the soil structure and composition of that area. It is reported that the agricultural lands are more threatened by IAPs because they are introduced by the crop seeds, garden plants, and wind breakers [24].

The first and most important step for effective and proper management of IAPs is to collect the baseline data about their invasion status, growth form, and life cycle. Accurately distinguishing between native and alien species is required not only when developing conservation and vegetation management plans but also for improving our understanding of the different components of biodiversity [21]. Rourkela, one of the major steel industrial centers of India and regarded as the industrial capital of Odisha, is situated in the north-eastern part of the state. Rourkela is located in Sundargarh district about 245 km from the shoreline of Bay of Bengal. It is located at 20° 12′ North latitude and 84° 53′ longitude, at the elevation about 219 m above the mean sea level. Due to better communication, abundance of natural mineral resources such as iron ore, limestone, dolomite, water, and other infrastructures in and around Rourkela is the main reason for the starting of industrialization since 1956. Studies on flora of Sundargarh district have not been fully explored. A few reports on flora of Sundargarh district [1, 2, 11, 13, 14] have been published. The study of literatures reveals that survey pertaining to major invasive plant species has not been reported earlier. It is high time to undertake complete survey of the flora of Sundargarh district with special emphasis on IAPs which may not be available in the future due to rapid industrialization. Many species may become endangered in the process of development, and they should be recorded and identified along with their usefulness before their extinction during rapid industrialization. Keeping in view, an attempt has been made in the present study to provide the baseline information on the invasive plant species in and around of Rourkela City of Sundargarh district. It will be helpful in preparation of district flora of Sundargarh.

#### **2. Materials and method**

During January 2012 to April 2019, intensive floristic surveys were undertaken in different areas of Rourkela Steel City (**Figure 1**) in such a way that each location could be studied in every season of the year. A comprehensive list of invasive alien plant species (IAPs) and the interaction with local inhabitants were made to collect the information regarding the various uses of IAPs of the area. Periodic collection of IAPs was made from each locality followed by identification using the available

**5**

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India*

floras [6, 30]. The nativity, history, diversity, sources, and mode of introduction of these alien invasive plants were noted from the available literatures. The native ranges of the species were recorded from published literatures [3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18–20, 24–27, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38]. Plants were categorized according to their life forms as herb, undershrub, shrub, climber, and tree as well as their habit-wise as annual, biennial, and perennial. The studied habitats were wasteland, cultivated field, riverbank, pond bank, home garden, forest, roadside, etc. The economic importance of the IAPs was collected from the local inhabitants and surveyed literatures.

*Location map of Rourkela Steel City of Sundargarh district, Odisha, India.*

A total of 165 taxa of invasive alien plant species belonging to 132 genera and 59 families have been recorded from the Rourkela Steel City of Odisha (**Table 1**). The number of dicotyledonous IAPs found is 149 under 118 genera and 50 families, while 15 species of monocotyledons are found under 14 genera and 8 families. From the study, it was found that 114 species (69%) were herbs followed by trees with 23 species (14%), shrub 22 species (13%), climbers 5 species (3%), and undershrubs 1 species (1%) (**Figure 2**). The life form pattern distribution showed that herbaceous species (114 spp.) were dominant than other life forms (**Table 2**). The herbs can easily grow in any condition of environment and dominate to others. The habit distribution analysis showed that 56% (92 spp.) were annuals and 44% (73 spp.) were perennials. **Table 3** showed the total number of IAPs recorded from the Rourkela Steel City and distributed under different families. From the taxonomic distribution of alien flora, Asteraceae (24 spp.) showed dominant impact among the invasive alien species in this region followed by Caesalpiniaceae (11 spp.), Convolvulaceae (9 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (8 spp.), Amaranthaceae (8 spp.), Poaceae (6 spp.), and Solanaceae (8 spp.), and Fabaceae, Malvaceae, and Verbenaceae represented only 5 spp. each (**Table 4**). These 10 dominant families contributed 89 species (54%) of the total invasive plant species studied (**Figure 3**). The genera *Cassia* and *Ipomoea* showed the highest number (six spp. each) followed

The contribution of different geographical regions or the nativity of invasive alien species is shown in **Table 3**. A total of 25 native geographical regions of IAPs were recorded. The major geographical regions or nativities of IAPs were Tropical

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

**3. Results and discussion**

**Figure 1.**

by *Cleome*, *Euphorbia*, *Alternanthera*, *Ludwigia*, etc.

**Figure 1.**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

health problems like respiratory illness [19].

crop seeds, garden plants, and wind breakers [24].

helpful in preparation of district flora of Sundargarh.

**2. Materials and method**

[22] stated that "Invasive alien plant species (IAPs)" are grown in such a way that they become as more dangerous to sustainable development. As a result, we are facing the great challenge of biodiversity loss all over the globe. These group of plant species act as the main cause for threat to the native biological diversity. They show various effects on the environment and economy of nonnative ecosystems. The exotic or alien plant species not only show negative impacts, but also they have much economic benefits. Now invasion alien species are cultivated to provide food, medicine, fuel, or fodder to local communities [9, 29]. The international trade of the products is helpful for introduction of these invasive alien species. Globally the introduction of IAPs leads to the huge loss of biodiversity and agriculture crops and

Invasion of plants creates serious problems to the ecosystems by changing the structure, composition, and function of natural ecosystem [15, 17]. The rapid reproduction and growth rate, high dispersal ability, physiological adaptations to new conditions, and ability to survive on various ecosystems are the common characteristics of invasive plants. The IAPs have the ability to associate with human beings very easily. When the invasive plants colonized to grow in new areas, it can change the soil structure and composition of that area. It is reported that the agricultural lands are more threatened by IAPs because they are introduced by the

The first and most important step for effective and proper management of IAPs is to collect the baseline data about their invasion status, growth form, and life cycle. Accurately distinguishing between native and alien species is required not only when developing conservation and vegetation management plans but also for improving our understanding of the different components of biodiversity [21]. Rourkela, one of the major steel industrial centers of India and regarded as the industrial capital of Odisha, is situated in the north-eastern part of the state. Rourkela is located in Sundargarh district about 245 km from the shoreline of Bay of Bengal. It is located at 20° 12′ North latitude and 84° 53′ longitude, at the elevation about 219 m above the mean sea level. Due to better communication, abundance of natural mineral resources such as iron ore, limestone, dolomite, water, and other infrastructures in and around Rourkela is the main reason for the starting of industrialization since 1956. Studies on flora of Sundargarh district have not been fully explored. A few reports on flora of Sundargarh district [1, 2, 11, 13, 14] have been published. The study of literatures reveals that survey pertaining to major invasive plant species has not been reported earlier. It is high time to undertake complete survey of the flora of Sundargarh district with special emphasis on IAPs which may not be available in the future due to rapid industrialization. Many species may become endangered in the process of development, and they should be recorded and identified along with their usefulness before their extinction during rapid industrialization. Keeping in view, an attempt has been made in the present study to provide the baseline information on the invasive plant species in and around of Rourkela City of Sundargarh district. It will be

During January 2012 to April 2019, intensive floristic surveys were undertaken in different areas of Rourkela Steel City (**Figure 1**) in such a way that each location could be studied in every season of the year. A comprehensive list of invasive alien plant species (IAPs) and the interaction with local inhabitants were made to collect the information regarding the various uses of IAPs of the area. Periodic collection of IAPs was made from each locality followed by identification using the available

**4**

*Location map of Rourkela Steel City of Sundargarh district, Odisha, India.*

floras [6, 30]. The nativity, history, diversity, sources, and mode of introduction of these alien invasive plants were noted from the available literatures. The native ranges of the species were recorded from published literatures [3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18–20, 24–27, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38]. Plants were categorized according to their life forms as herb, undershrub, shrub, climber, and tree as well as their habit-wise as annual, biennial, and perennial. The studied habitats were wasteland, cultivated field, riverbank, pond bank, home garden, forest, roadside, etc. The economic importance of the IAPs was collected from the local inhabitants and surveyed literatures.

#### **3. Results and discussion**

A total of 165 taxa of invasive alien plant species belonging to 132 genera and 59 families have been recorded from the Rourkela Steel City of Odisha (**Table 1**). The number of dicotyledonous IAPs found is 149 under 118 genera and 50 families, while 15 species of monocotyledons are found under 14 genera and 8 families. From the study, it was found that 114 species (69%) were herbs followed by trees with 23 species (14%), shrub 22 species (13%), climbers 5 species (3%), and undershrubs 1 species (1%) (**Figure 2**). The life form pattern distribution showed that herbaceous species (114 spp.) were dominant than other life forms (**Table 2**). The herbs can easily grow in any condition of environment and dominate to others. The habit distribution analysis showed that 56% (92 spp.) were annuals and 44% (73 spp.) were perennials. **Table 3** showed the total number of IAPs recorded from the Rourkela Steel City and distributed under different families. From the taxonomic distribution of alien flora, Asteraceae (24 spp.) showed dominant impact among the invasive alien species in this region followed by Caesalpiniaceae (11 spp.), Convolvulaceae (9 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (8 spp.), Amaranthaceae (8 spp.), Poaceae (6 spp.), and Solanaceae (8 spp.), and Fabaceae, Malvaceae, and Verbenaceae represented only 5 spp. each (**Table 4**). These 10 dominant families contributed 89 species (54%) of the total invasive plant species studied (**Figure 3**). The genera *Cassia* and *Ipomoea* showed the highest number (six spp. each) followed by *Cleome*, *Euphorbia*, *Alternanthera*, *Ludwigia*, etc.

The contribution of different geographical regions or the nativity of invasive alien species is shown in **Table 3**. A total of 25 native geographical regions of IAPs were recorded. The major geographical regions or nativities of IAPs were Tropical

#### *Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*


**7**

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India*

**Plant species Family Life form Habit Nativity Use**

Sapindaceae Herb A Trop. America M

Casuarinaceae Tree P Australia Fu,

Apocynaceae Herb A Trop. America NK

Apocynaceae Shrub P West Indies M

Chenopodiaceae Herb A Europe V

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America M

Euphorbiaceae Herb A Trop. Africa NK

Capparaceae Herb A Trop. America NK

Convolvulaceae Herb A Europe M

Euphorbiaceae Herb P S. America M

N. West

Nox

Nox

M, Sf

Fu, Ave

V, M, Nox

Sf

Fu

Fu

Fu

V

Trop. Asia

(1824)

26 *Cardamine scutata* L. Brassicaceae Herb A Trop. America NK,

28 *Carica papaya* L. Caricaceae Tree P Mexico V 29 *Cassia alata* L. Caesalpiniaceae Shrub P West Indies NK,

30 *Cassia fistula* L. Caesalpiniaceae Tree P Pantropic O,

31 *Cassia obtusifolia* L. Caesalpiniaceae Herb P Trop. America M 32 *Cassia occidentalis* L. Caesalpiniaceae Herb P S. America M

38 *Celosia argentea* L. Amaranthaceae Herb A Trop. Africa V, M

40 *Chloris barbata* Sw. Poaceae Herb P Trop. America Fo,

43 *Cleome gynandra* L. Capparaceae Herb A Trop. America M 44 *Cleome monophylla* L. Capparaceae Herb A Trop. Africa V, M

46 *Cleome viscosa* L. Capparaceae Herb A Trop. America V, M

48 *Corchorus aestuans* L. Tiliaceae Herb A Trop. America Fu 49 *Crotalaria pallida* Ait Fabaceae Herb A Trop. America Fi,

50 *Crotalaria retusa* L. Fabaceae Herb A Trop. America Fi,

52 *Cucumis melo* L. Cucurbitaceae Climber A Iran and

33 *Cassia siamea* Lamk Caesalpiniaceae Tree P South East

34 *Cassia tora* L. Caesalpiniaceae Herb A S. America

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

**Sl no.**

27 *Cardiospermum halicacabum* L.

35 *Casuarina equisetifolia* Forster & Forster f.

36 *Catharanthus pusillus* (Murr.) G. Don.

37 *Catharanthus roseus* (Linn) G.Don

39 *Chenopodium album* L.

41 *Chromolaena odorata* L.

42 *Chrozophora rottleri* (Geisel.) Juss.

45 *Cleome rutidosperma* DC

47 *Convolvulus nervosus* Burm.f.

*bonplandianum* Baill.

51 *Croton* 


#### *Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

1 *Abelmoschus esculentus* Moench.

2 *Acacia auriculiformis* A. Cunn. ex Benth.

3 *Acanthospermum hispidum* DC.

4 *Aerva lanata* (L.) Juss. ex. Schult.

5 *Aeschynomene indica* L.

6 *Ageratum conyzoides* L.

9 *Alternanthera* 

Griseb.

10 *Alternanthera pungens* Kunth

11 *Alternanthera sessilis* (Linn) DC.

12 *Amaranthus spinosus* L.

13 *Antigonon leptopus* Hook. & Arn.

17 *Blainvillea acmella* (L.) Philipson

18 *Blumea lacera* (Burm.f.) DC.

20 *Bougainvillea* 

21 *Caesalpinia* 

22 *Calotropis gigantea* R. Br.

23 *Calotropis procera* (Ait.) R. Br.

*spectabilis* Willd.

*pulcherrima* (L.) Sw.

*philoxeroides* (Mart.)

**Plant species Family Life form Habit Nativity Use**

7 *Allium cepa* L. Liliaceae Herb A Mediterranean M, V 8 *Aloe barbadensis* Mill. Liliaceae Herb P Mediterranean M

Malvaceae Shrub P Trop. Africa V, Ft

Mimosaceae Tree P Australia M,

Asteraceae Herb A Brazil M

Amaranthaceae Herb P Madagascar M

Fabaceae Herb A North America Fu

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America Nox

Amaranthaceae Herb P Trop. America V, M

Amaranthaceae Herb P Trop. America V

Amaranthaceae Herb P Trop. America V, M

Amaranthaceae Herb A Trop. America V

S. America

(seventeenth cent.)

(eighteenth)

O

M, Nox

Fo

M

M

Fu

Sm, Nar

Polygonaceae Climber P Trop.

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America Nox,

Nyctaginaceae Shrub P Brazil O

Caesalpiniaceae Shrub P Trop. America O

Asclepiadaceae Shrub P Trop. Africa M

Asclepiadaceae Shrub P Trop. Africa M

14 *Argemone mexicana* L. Papaveraceae Herb A S. America

15 *Bauhinia purpurea* L. Caesalpiniaceae Tree P West Indies V 16 *Bidens pilosa* L. Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America M,

19 *Borassus flabellifer* L. Arecaceae Tree P Trop. Africa Ft,

24 *Cannabis sativa* L. Cannabinaceae Undershrub P Central Asia M,

25 *Capsicum annuum* L. Solanaceae Shrub A Trop. America F

Ave, Sf

**Sl no.**

**6**

#### *Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*


**9**

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India*

**Plant species Family Life form Habit Nativity Use**

82 *Indigofera linnaei* Ali Fabaceae Herb A Trop. Africa M

84 *Ipomoea carnea* Jacq. Convolvulaceae Shrub P Trop. America Fu 85 *Ipomoea hederifolia* L. Convolvulaceae Herb A Trop. America M

88 *Ipomoea quamoclit* L. Convolvulaceae Herb P Trop. America M 89 *Jatropha gossypifolia* L. Euphorbiaceae Shrub P Brazil M

92 *Kigelia pinnata* DC Bignoniaceae Tree P Africa O,

94 *Lantana camara* L. Verbenaceae Shrub P Trop. America M,

99 *Ludwigia perennis* L. Onagraceae Herb A Trop. America M,

101 *Martynia annua* L. Martyniaceae Herb A Trop. America M

87 *Ipomoea pes-tigridis* L. Convolvulaceae Herb A Trop. East

Boraginaceae Herb A S. America M

Malvaceae Shrub P China M, O

Lamiaceae Herb A Trop. America M,

Balsaminaceae Herb A Trop. America O

Convolvulaceae Climber P Trop. America Ft

Convolvulaceae Herb P Trop. Africa NK

Acanthaceae Shrub P China M

Crassulaceae Herb P Trop. Africa O, M

Lytharaceae Shrub P China O

Lamiaceae Herb A Trop. Africa M

Mimosaceae Tree P Trop. America Fu,

Onagraceae Herb A Trop. America Sb

Onagraceae Herb A Trop. America M,

Malvaceae Herb A Trop. America M,

Verbenaceae Shrub A T. N. America NK

Sterculiaceae Herb A Trop. America NK

Africa

Nox

M

Ave, Sf

Nox

Sf

Sb

Sb

Fi

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

78 *Heliotropium indicum* L.

79 *Hibiscus rosa-sinensis* L.

80 *Hyptis suaveolens* (L.) Poit.

81 *Impatiens balsamina* L.

83 *Ipomoea batatas* (L.) Lam.

86 *Ipomoea obscura* (L.) Ker-Gaw

90 *Justicia gendarussa* Burm.f.

91 *Kalanchoe pinnata* (Lam.) Pers.

93 *Lagerstroemia indica* L.

95 *Leonotis nepetifolia* (L.) R.Br.

96 *Leucaena leucocephala* (Lam.) de Wit.

97 *Ludwigia adscendens* (L.) Hara

98 *Ludwigia octovalvis* (Jacq.) Raven

*coromandelianum* (L.)

*procumbens* (Mill.)

100 *Malvastrum* 

102 *Mecardonia* 

Small

103 *Melochia corchorifolia* L.

Garcke

**Sl no.**


#### *Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

54 *Cynodon dactylon* (L.) Pers.

59 *Delonix regia* (Boj.) Raf.

61 *Echinochloa colona* (L.) Link

62 *Echinochloa crus-galli* Beauv.

64 *Eichhornia crassipes* (Mart.) Solm.

65 *Emilia sonchifolia* (L.) DC.

66 *Eucalyptus citriodora* Hook.

> *heterophylla* auct. Non L.

*pulcherrima* Willd. ex. Klotz

70 *Euphorbia thymifolia* L.

*nummularius* L.

*polycaulon* Pers.

*maderaspatana* L.

73 *Gomphrena celosioides* Mart.

67 *Euphorbia* 

69 *Euphorbia* 

71 *Evolvulus* 

75 *Grangea* 

76 *Grevillea robusta* Cunn. ex R.Br.

72 *Gnaphalium* 

**Plant species Family Life form Habit Nativity Use**

Poaceae Herb P Trop. America M

Caesalpiniaceae Tree P Madagascar O,

Pontederiaceae Herb P Trop. America St

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America V, M

Myrtaceae Tree P Australia M,

Euphorbiaceae Herb A Trop. America O

Euphorbiaceae Shrub P Mexico O

Euphorbiaceae Herb P Trop. America NK

Convolvulaceae Herb P Trop. America M

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America NK,

Amaranthaceae Herb A S. America Fo

Proteaceae Tree P Australia Fu,

Nox

Nox

Ave, Sf

Fo

Fo

M

Fu, Sf

Nox

NK, Nox

Sf

Oil

S. America

S. America

(Bf1824)

S. America

53 *Cuscuta reflexa* Roxb. Cuscutaceae Herb A Mediterranean M

55 *Cyperus difformis* L. Cyperaceae Herb P Trop. America M 56 *Cyperus iria* L. Cyperaceae Herb P Trop. America M 57 *Datura innoxia* Mill. Solanaceae Shrub P Trop. America M,

58 *Datura metel* L. Solanaceae Shrub P Trop. America M,

60 *Duranta repens* L. Verbenaceae Shrub P America O

63 *Eclipta prostrata* L. Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America

68 *Euphorbia hirta* L. Euphorbiaceae Herb A Trop. America M

74 *Gomphrena globosa* L. Amaranthaceae Herb A America O

77 *Helianthus annuus* L. Asteraceae Herb A America O,

Asteraceae Herb A Trop.

Poaceae Herb A Trop.

Poaceae Herb A Trop.

**Sl no.**

**8**

#### *Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*


**11**

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India*

**Plant species Family Life form Habit Nativity Use**

Poaceae Herb A T. West Asia Th,

Asteraceae Herb A Mediterranean M

Bignoniaceae Tree P Trop. Africa Ave,

Rubiaceae Herb A Trop. America NK

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. Africa M

Asteraceae Herb A North America M

Verbenaceae Herb A Trop. America M

Asteraceae Herb A West Indies M

Bignoniaceae Tree P America O

Apocynaceae Tree P Trop. America M

Tiliaceae Herb A Trop. America M

Typhaceae Herb P Trop. America Th,

Fu, Fo

Sf

Fu, Fo

Fu

132 *Ruellia tuberosa* L. Acanthaceae Herb A Trop. America NK

 *Scoparia dulcis* L. Scrophulariaceae Herb A Trop. America M *Sida acuta* Burm.f. Malvaceae Herb A Trop. America M *Solanum nigrum* L. Solanaceae Herb A Trop. America M *Solanum torvum* Sw. Solanaceae Shrub P West Indies M

143 *Spinacia oleracea* L. Chenopodiaceae Herb A Europe V

145 *Stylosanthes hamata* L. Fabaceae Herb A Trop. Africa Fo

147 *Tagetes erecta* L. Asteraceae Herb A Mexico O, M 148 *Tagetes patula* L. Asteraceae Herb A Mexico O, M 149 *Tamarindus indica* L. Caesalpiniaceae Tree P Trop. America Ft

152 *Thuja orientalis* L. Cupressaceae Tree P China O 153 *Tribulus terrestris* L. Zygophyllaceae Herb A Trop. America M 154 *Tridax procumbens* L. Asteraceae Herb P Mexico M

156 *Turnera ulmifolia* L. Turneraceae Herb P Trop. America O

158 *Urena lobata* L. Malvaceae Herb A Trop. Africa Fib,

159 *Vernonia cinerea* L. Asteraceae Herb A S. America M 160 *Waltheria indica* L. Sterculiaceae Herb A Trop. America M

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

**Sl no.**

133 *Saccharum* 

*spontaneum* L.

138 *Sonchus asper* (L.) Hill

*campanulata* Beauv.

140 *Spermacoce articularis* L.

141 *Sphaeranthus indicus* L.

142 *Spilanthes acmella* (L.) L.

144 *Stachytarpheta* 

146 *Synedrella nodiflora* (L.) Gaertn.

150 *Tecoma stans* (L.) Juss. ex Kunth

151 *Thevetia peruviana* (Pers.) Merrill

155 *Triumfetta pentandra* A.Rich.

157 *Typha angustata* Bory & Chaub.

*jamaicensis* (L.) Vahl.

139 *Spathodea* 


#### *Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

104 *Merremia vitifolia* (Burm.f.) Hall.f.

111 *Opuntia stricta* (Haw.) Haw.

113 *Parthenium* 

116 *Peltophorum* 

118 *Peristrophe* 

Nees.

119 *Phoenix sylvestris* (L.) Roxb.

120 *Phyla nodiflora* (L.) Greene

124 *Pithecellobium dulce* (Roxb.) Benth.

127 *Portulaca quadrifida* L.

117 *Peperomia pellucida* (L.) Kunth

*hysterophorus* L.

*pterocarpum* (DC.) Backer ex K.Heyne

*bicalyculata* (Retz.)

**Plant species Family Life form Habit Nativity Use**

 *Mikania micrantha* L. Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America Nox *Mimosa pudica* L. Mimosaceae Herb P Brazil M *Mirabilis jalapa* L. Nyctaginaceae Herb P Peru O, M *Morus australis* Poir. Moraceae Tree P China Ft *Nicotiana tabacum* L. Solanaceae Herb A S. America Nar,

110 *Ocimum canum* Sims Lamiaceae Herb A Trop. America M

112 *Oxalis corniculata* L. Oxalidaceae Herb A Europe M

115 *Pedalium murex* L. Pedaliaceae Herb A Trop. America M

121 *Physalis angulata* L. Solanaceae Herb A Trop. America M,

122 *Physalis minima* L. Solanaceae Herb A Trop. America M,

123 *Pistia stratiotes* L. Araceae Herb P Trop. America M, St

125 *Plumeria rubra* L. Apocynaceae Tree P S. America O

128 *Quisqualis indica* L. Combretaceae Climber P Malaya O

130 *Richardia scabra* L. Rubiaceae Herb A S. America NK 131 *Ricinus communis* L. Euphorbiaceae Shrub P Africa M

126 *Portulaca oleracea* L. Portulacaceae Herb A Trop.

129 *Rhoeo discolor* Hance. Commelinaceae Herb P Central

Piperaceae Herb A Trop.

114 *Passiflora foetida* L. Passifloraceae Climber P Trop.

Convolvulaceae Herb A Trop. America NK

Cactaceae Shrub P Trop. America NK

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America Nox

Caesalpiniaceae Tree P Malaya Ave,

Acanthaceae Herb A Trop. America NK

Arecaceae Tree P Trop. America Ft,

Verbenaceae Herb A Trop. America M

Mimosaceae Tree P Mexico Ft

Portulacaceae Herb A Trop. America M, V

S. America

S. America

S. America

America

Sm

O, M

Sf

M

Fu

Ft

Ft

M, V

O

**Sl no.**

**10**


*Note: F, food; FT, fruit; O, ornamental; not known; M, medicinal; Fu, fuel; Fib, fiber; V, vegetable; Sp, species; Nox, noxious; Sm, smoking; Co, compost; Sa, sacred plant; Sb, soil binder; Ch, chemical compounds; Ave, avenue; T, thatching; A, annual; P, perennial.*

#### **Table 1.**

*List of invasive alien plant species (IAPs) recorded from Rourkela Steel City, Sundargarh, Odisha.*

**Figure 2.** *Habit-wise distribution of invasive alien plant species in Rourkela.*


**13**

**Table 3.**

*Different geographic nativities of the invasive alien plants.*

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India*

America 77 species, Tropical South America 7 spp., Central America 1 spp., South America 10 spp., Tropical Africa 15 spp., Mexico 7 spp., and Europe 4 spp. IAPs are having negative impacts on the ecosystem and biodiversity of that region. Besides they are also found to be useful to local inhabitants. From the survey of literatures and interaction with local people about the IAPs, several plant species were used for different purposes like medicine, vegetables, fuels, fodders, etc. The study revealed that 87 spp. are used as medicine, while 18 spp. are used as fuel, 9 spp. used for fodders, and 30 spp. used for ornamental and avenue purposes. A total of 28 spp. were used as edible in the form of fruit, vegetables, oil, etc. Several species like *Argemone mexicana*, *Euphorbia hirta*, *Mimosa pudica*, *Ocimum canum*, *Calotropis* spp., *Croton bonplandianus*, *Catharanthus roseus*, etc. were mostly common medicinal plants used by local people, kabiraj and baidyas, while plants like *Cassia siamea*, *Leucaena leucophloea*, *Kigelia pinnata*, etc. were used for avenue plantation and social forestry. *Cannabis sativa* and *Nicotiana tabacum* were not only used for medicines, but also they are used for smoking as narcotic products. Alien species have been classified into naturalized and noxious species by various

**Sl. no. Nativity No. of species** America 5 Central America 1 North America 2 South America 10 Tropical America 77 Tropical South America 7 Tropical North America 1 8 Africa 2 Tropical Africa 15 Tropical East Africa 1 11 Brazil 4 Australia 4 West Indies 5 14 Mexico 7 15 Malaya 2 Madagascar 2 17 Europe 4 18 China 6 Iran North West 1 Pantropic 1 21 Peru 1 South East Tropical Asia 1 Tropical West Asia 1 Central Asia 1 Mediterranean 4

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

**Table 2.** *Habit of invasive alien plant species in Rourkela Steel City of Odisha.*

#### *Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

162 *Xanthium strumarium* L.

165 *Ziziphus mauritiana* Lam.

*T, thatching; A, annual; P, perennial.*

**Plant species Family Life form Habit Nativity Use**

Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America M,

Rhamnaceae Tree P China Ft

Nox

Fu, Nox

Fu, Fo

161 *Xanthium indicum* L. Asteraceae Herb A Trop. America M,

163 *Zinnia elegans* Jacq. Asteraceae Herb A Mexico O 164 *Zea mays* L. Poaceae Herb A America F,

*Note: F, food; FT, fruit; O, ornamental; not known; M, medicinal; Fu, fuel; Fib, fiber; V, vegetable; Sp, species; Nox, noxious; Sm, smoking; Co, compost; Sa, sacred plant; Sb, soil binder; Ch, chemical compounds; Ave, avenue;* 

*List of invasive alien plant species (IAPs) recorded from Rourkela Steel City, Sundargarh, Odisha.*

**Sl no.**

**Table 1.**

**12**

**Table 2.**

**Figure 2.**

*Habit-wise distribution of invasive alien plant species in Rourkela.*

*Habit of invasive alien plant species in Rourkela Steel City of Odisha.*

**Sl. no. Habit No. of species** 1 Herb 114 2 Shrub 22 3 Tree 23 4 Climber 5 5 Undershrub 1

America 77 species, Tropical South America 7 spp., Central America 1 spp., South America 10 spp., Tropical Africa 15 spp., Mexico 7 spp., and Europe 4 spp. IAPs are having negative impacts on the ecosystem and biodiversity of that region. Besides they are also found to be useful to local inhabitants. From the survey of literatures and interaction with local people about the IAPs, several plant species were used for different purposes like medicine, vegetables, fuels, fodders, etc. The study revealed that 87 spp. are used as medicine, while 18 spp. are used as fuel, 9 spp. used for fodders, and 30 spp. used for ornamental and avenue purposes. A total of 28 spp. were used as edible in the form of fruit, vegetables, oil, etc. Several species like *Argemone mexicana*, *Euphorbia hirta*, *Mimosa pudica*, *Ocimum canum*, *Calotropis* spp., *Croton bonplandianus*, *Catharanthus roseus*, etc. were mostly common medicinal plants used by local people, kabiraj and baidyas, while plants like *Cassia siamea*, *Leucaena leucophloea*, *Kigelia pinnata*, etc. were used for avenue plantation and social forestry. *Cannabis sativa* and *Nicotiana tabacum* were not only used for medicines, but also they are used for smoking as narcotic products. Alien species have been classified into naturalized and noxious species by various


**Table 3.** *Different geographic nativities of the invasive alien plants.*


**Table 4.**

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India*

**Sl. no. Family No. of species** Pedaliaceae 1 Piperaceae 1 Poaceae 6 Polygonaceae 1 Pontederiaceae 1 Portulacaceae 2 Proteaceae 1 Rhamnaceae 1 Rubiaceae 2 Sapindaceae 1 Scrophulariaceae 1 Solanaceae 8 Sterculiaceae 2 Tiliaceae 2 Turneraceae 1 Typhaceae 1 Verbenaceae 5 Zygophyllaceae 1

workers [8, 28, 39]. Many reports say different alien species become noxious after naturalized. *Ageratum conyzoides*, *Blumea lacera*, *Cassia alata*, *Lantana camara*, *Cassia tora*, *Parthenium hysterophorus*, *Xanthium* sp., *Datura* sp., *Cardamine scutata*, *Argemone Mexicana*, *Grangea maderaspatana*, *Hyptis suaveolens*, and *Gnaphalium polycaulon* were some noxious species found during the study. *Parthenium hysterophorus* was one of the highly noxious and abundantly grown plant species next

From the taxonomical study, Asteraceae was the most dominant invasive family which dominated all other species due to its adaptive nature of seeds in different areas. The plant species have high reproductive potential to produce minute seeds so fast which disperse in new area through wind, air, and water. From the literature study, it was found that Asteraceae was more invasive in other areas of India [5, 7, 8, 23, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37] and also all over the world. Mallick et al. also found Asteraceae

as the most dominating group of weeds among all other plant family groups. *Mikania micrantha*, a climber of Asteraceae, can climb trees and walls easily which inhibit the growth of the trees as well as cover the whole area so rapidly. *Parthenium hysterophorus* was another noxious plant of this family which could cause black fever disease. It grows very rapidly as its seeds disperse and grow so fast in new area which become invasive later. Annuals showed dominance over perennials among the invasive species as annuals complete life cycle and produce seeds to disperse in a short period in a year. Habit-wise distribution showed that herbaceous plants become more invasive than shrubs, climbers, and trees. Herbs have more tolerance to harsh condition and have great viability to grow in any condition which helps to become more invasive than others. Kumar et al. [11] found herbs as the more

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

to *Ageratum conyzoides* and *Lantana camera*.

*Total number of IAPs' distributed family-wise species in Rourkela Steel City.*

dominant plant group found in Rourkela flora.


*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

#### **Table 4.**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

*Total number of IAPs' distributed family-wise species in Rourkela Steel City.*

workers [8, 28, 39]. Many reports say different alien species become noxious after naturalized. *Ageratum conyzoides*, *Blumea lacera*, *Cassia alata*, *Lantana camara*, *Cassia tora*, *Parthenium hysterophorus*, *Xanthium* sp., *Datura* sp., *Cardamine scutata*, *Argemone Mexicana*, *Grangea maderaspatana*, *Hyptis suaveolens*, and *Gnaphalium polycaulon* were some noxious species found during the study. *Parthenium hysterophorus* was one of the highly noxious and abundantly grown plant species next to *Ageratum conyzoides* and *Lantana camera*.

From the taxonomical study, Asteraceae was the most dominant invasive family which dominated all other species due to its adaptive nature of seeds in different areas. The plant species have high reproductive potential to produce minute seeds so fast which disperse in new area through wind, air, and water. From the literature study, it was found that Asteraceae was more invasive in other areas of India [5, 7, 8, 23, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37] and also all over the world. Mallick et al. also found Asteraceae as the most dominating group of weeds among all other plant family groups. *Mikania micrantha*, a climber of Asteraceae, can climb trees and walls easily which inhibit the growth of the trees as well as cover the whole area so rapidly. *Parthenium hysterophorus* was another noxious plant of this family which could cause black fever disease. It grows very rapidly as its seeds disperse and grow so fast in new area which become invasive later. Annuals showed dominance over perennials among the invasive species as annuals complete life cycle and produce seeds to disperse in a short period in a year. Habit-wise distribution showed that herbaceous plants become more invasive than shrubs, climbers, and trees. Herbs have more tolerance to harsh condition and have great viability to grow in any condition which helps to become more invasive than others. Kumar et al. [11] found herbs as the more dominant plant group found in Rourkela flora.

**Figure 3.** *Family-wise distribution of invasive alien plants in Rourkela Steel City of Odisha.*

#### **4. Conclusion**

The invasive species are nonnative and exotic which are introduced intentionally for different purposes and sometimes accidentally introduced to a new area. The invasive species are more adapted to new areas by rapidly growing and reproducing more biomass than the native plant biodiversity. As a result, they can change the native ecosystem and become threats to the native ecosystem. IAPs also change the quality of soil, nutrient capacity, as well as the biodiversity present inside the soil. After invasion some invasive plants become narrow and noxious which affects the ecosystem with extinction of species and also affects the human health. Public involvement can be used and needed for early detection and reporting of infestations of the spread of new weeds as invasive species in the area. People should aware about the invasive species and its allelopathic effects on the environment and human health. Invasive species are now becoming more serious causing sustainable use of biodiversity and their impacts on invaded environment. Invasive alien plant species diversity in Rourkela of Sundargarh, Odisha, is a threat for the present flora due to their aggressive growth, colonizing ability, and adaptability. After invasion, their population growth increases rapidly in the new ecosystem; as a result they encroach crop fields, wastelands, and barren lands. The increased rate of invasion by alien species directly affects the agricultural economy and the biodiversity. Hence, eradication of IAPs should be done urgently. So awareness among local people is one of the methods to control IAPs. Besides this, the utilization of hidden medicinal potential can make IAPs beneficial to the people of the region. Moreover, the effect of IAPs in the economy, biodiversity, and human health is yet to be assessed. This study is based on diversity of invasive plant species found in different areas of Rourkela. Since the flora of Sundargarh district has not been beneficially and fully explored, this study will help in the compilation of flora of Sundargarh district and Rourkela in particular. Further studies reveal the allelopathic effects of IAPs on different plants, agricultural crops, and their ethnobotanical values.

**17**

**Author details**

and Sudam C. Sahu4

Samarendra Narayan Mallick1

\*

provided the original work is properly cited.

1 Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, Odisha, India

, Nirius Xenan Ekka<sup>2</sup>

2 School of Life Sciences, Sambalpur University, Sambalpur, Odisha, India

4 Department of Botany, North Orissa University, Baripada, Odisha, India

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

3 Ambika Prasad Research Foundation, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

\*Address all correspondence to: sudam\_rrl@yahoo.co.in

, Sanjeet Kumar3

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India*

sharing valuable information during the study.

Authors acknowledge the people of Rourkela for their kind cooperation and for

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

**Acknowledgements**

*Invasive Alien Flora in and around an Urban Area of India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88725*

#### **Acknowledgements**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

**4. Conclusion**

**Figure 3.**

The invasive species are nonnative and exotic which are introduced intentionally for different purposes and sometimes accidentally introduced to a new area. The invasive species are more adapted to new areas by rapidly growing and reproducing more biomass than the native plant biodiversity. As a result, they can change the native ecosystem and become threats to the native ecosystem. IAPs also change the quality of soil, nutrient capacity, as well as the biodiversity present inside the soil. After invasion some invasive plants become narrow and noxious which affects the ecosystem with extinction of species and also affects the human health. Public involvement can be used and needed for early detection and reporting of infestations of the spread of new weeds as invasive species in the area. People should aware about the invasive species and its allelopathic effects on the environment and human health. Invasive species are now becoming more serious causing sustainable use of biodiversity and their impacts on invaded environment. Invasive alien plant species diversity in Rourkela of Sundargarh, Odisha, is a threat for the present flora due to their aggressive growth, colonizing ability, and adaptability. After invasion, their population growth increases rapidly in the new ecosystem; as a result they encroach crop fields, wastelands, and barren lands. The increased rate of invasion by alien species directly affects the agricultural economy and the biodiversity. Hence, eradication of IAPs should be done urgently. So awareness among local people is one of the methods to control IAPs. Besides this, the utilization of hidden medicinal potential can make IAPs beneficial to the people of the region. Moreover, the effect of IAPs in the economy, biodiversity, and human health is yet to be assessed. This study is based on diversity of invasive plant species found in different areas of Rourkela. Since the flora of Sundargarh district has not been beneficially and fully explored, this study will help in the compilation of flora of Sundargarh district and Rourkela in particular. Further studies reveal the allelopathic effects of IAPs on different

*Family-wise distribution of invasive alien plants in Rourkela Steel City of Odisha.*

plants, agricultural crops, and their ethnobotanical values.

**16**

Authors acknowledge the people of Rourkela for their kind cooperation and for sharing valuable information during the study.

#### **Author details**

Samarendra Narayan Mallick1 , Nirius Xenan Ekka<sup>2</sup> , Sanjeet Kumar3 and Sudam C. Sahu4 \*


\*Address all correspondence to: sudam\_rrl@yahoo.co.in

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

[1] Acharya BC, Khandagiri SN, Mallick SN, Maharana M. A survey of plant diversities in and around Rourkela. In: Proceedings of Env. Seminar, Govt. (Autonomous) College; Rourkela; 2007.

[3] Acharya BC, Subudhi HN,

[2] Acharya BC, Mallick SN, Dehury SS, Khandagiri SN. Survey of herbs in and around Rourkela. In: Proceedings of Env. Seminar, Govt. (Autonomous) College; Rourkela; 2008. pp. 35-54

Madagascar. Mountain Research and Development. 2007;**27**:224-231

[10] Kumar P, Choudhury AK. Exotic species invasion threats to forests: A case study from the Betla national park, Palamu, Jharkhand, India. Tropical Plant Research. 2016;**3**(3):592-599

[11] Kumar S, Das G, Shin HS, Kumar P, Patra JK. Diversity of plant species in the steel city of Odisha, India: Ethnobotany and implications for conservation of urban bio-resources. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 2018;**61**:1-9

Mishra PK, Mishra K. Study of invasive and alien species in Jharkhand, India and its impact on environment. Journal of Ethnobiology and Traditional Medicine. 2012;**117**:167-177

Phytodiversity survey of roadside herbs and their ethnomedicinal values in and around Rourkela Steel Township, Sundargarh, Odisha. Life Sciences

[12] Lal HS, Singh S, Kumar A,

[13] Mallick SN, Acharya BC.

[14] Mandal KK, Khora SS, Kar T. Aquatic angiosperm of Bonai Forest division, Sundargarh district, Odisha. Plant Science Research.

[15] Maslo S. Preliminary list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Herbologia.

[16] Moktan S, Das AP. Diversity and distribution of invasive alien plants along the altitudinal gradient in Darjeeling Himalaya, India. Pleione.

[17] Mooney HA, Hobbs RJ, editors. Invasive Species in a Changing World. Washington, D.C., USA: Island Press;

Leaflets. 2013;**1**:46-55

2017;**39**(1&2):12-18

2016;**16**(1):1-14

2013;**7**(2):305-313

2000

Panda SP. Check list of economic plants of Rourkela and adjoining regions (Sundargarh district)—Odisha. Bulletin of Pure and Applied Sciences-Botany.

[4] Das K, Duarah P. Invasive alien plant species in the roadside areas of Jorhat, Assam: Their harmful effects and beneficial uses. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications.

[5] Feng J, Zhu Y. Alien invasive plants in China: Risk assessment and spatial patterns. Biodiversity and Conservation.

[6] Haines HH. Botany of Bihar and Orissa. Vol. 6. London: Arnold and Sons

[7] Heywood V. Patterns, extents, and modes of invasions by terrestrial plants. In: Drake J et al., editors. Biological Invasions: A Global Perspective. New York: Wiley; 1989. pp. 31-60

Zhou L, Wang GX. Identifying the most noxious invasive plants in China: Role of geographical origin, life form and means of introduction. Biodiversity and

and West Nirman Ltd; 1921-1925

[8] Huang QQ, Wu JM, Bai YY,

Conservation. 2009;**18**:305-316

[9] Kull CA, Tassin J, Rangan H. Multifunctional, scrubby, and invasive forests? Wattles in the highlands of

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[19] Nayak SK, Satapathy KB. Diversity, uses and origin of invasive alien plants in Dhenkanal district of Odisha, India. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences. 2015;**4**(2):21-27

[20] Negi PS, Hajra PK. Alien flora of Doon valley, northwest Himalaya. Current Science. 2007;**92**(7):968-978

[21] Preston CD, Pearman DA, Hall AR. Archaeophytes in Britain. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 2004;**145**:257-294

[22] Preston G, Williams L. Case study: The working for water programme: Threats and successes. Service Delivery Review. 2003;**2**(2):66-69

[23] Rao RR, Murugan R. Impact of exotic adventives weeds on native biodiversity in India: Implications for conservation. In: Rai LC, Gaur JP, editors. Invasive Alien Species and Biodiversity in India. Varanasi: Banaras Hindu University; 2006. pp. 93-109

[24] Rastogi J, Rawat DS, Chandra S. Diversity of invasive alien species in Pantnagar flora. Tropical Plant Research. 2015;**2**(3):282-287

[25] Reddy CS, Bagyanarayana G, Reddy KN, Raju VS. Invasive Alien Flora of India. USGS, USA: National Biological Information Infrastructure; 2008

[26] Reddy CS. Catalogue of invasive alien flora of India. Life Science Journal. 2008;**5**(2):85-87

[27] Reddy CS, Rangaswamy M, Pattanaik C, Jha CS. Invasion of alien species in wetlands of Samaspur bird sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, India. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution. 2009;**6**(3):43-50

[28] Richardson DM, Pyšek P, Rejmánek M, Barbour MG, Dane Panetta F, West CJ. Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: Concepts and definitions. Diversity and Distributions. 2000;**6**(2):93-107

[29] Roder W, Dorji K, Wangdi K. Implications of white clover introduction in east Himalayan grasslands. Mountain Research and Development. 2007;**27**:268-273

[30] Saxena HO, Braham M. The Flora of Orissa. Vol. 4. Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India: Orissa Forest Development Corporation Ltd; 1994-1996

[31] Sekar K. Invasive alien plants of Indian Himalayan region—Diversity and implication. American Journal of Plant Sciences. 2012;**3**:177-184

[32] Sekar CK, Manikandan R, Srivastava SK. Invasive alien plants of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences. 2012;**82**(3):375-383

[33] Sharma GP, Singh JS, Raghubanshi AS. Plant invasions: Emerging trends and future implications. Current Science. 2005;**88**:726-734

[34] Sheikh DK, Dixit AK. Occurrence of invasive plant in three phytogeographical region of Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh. Annals of Plant Sciences. 2017;**6**(12):1872-1878

[35] Singh KP, Shukla AN, Singh JS. State-level inventory of invasive alien plants, their source regions and use potential. Current Science. 2010;**99**(1):107-114

[36] Singh TB, Das AK, Singh PK. Study of alien and invasive flora of valley

district of Manipur and their control. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2015;**1**(2):616-626

[37] Srivastava S, Dvivedi A, Shykla RV. Invasive alien species of terrestrial vegetation of north eastern Uttar Pradesh. International Journal of Forest Research. 2014;**2014**:1-9

[38] Udaykumar M, Bharathidasan E, Sekar T. Invasive alien flora of Thiruvallur District, Tamil Nadu, India. Scholars Academic Journal of Biosciences. 2014;**2**(4):295-306

[39] Wu SH, Hsieh CF, Rejmanek M. Catalogue of the naturalized flora of Taiwan. Taiwania. 2004;**49**(1):16-31

**21**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Invasive Species in the Amazon

*Sérgio Henrique Brabo de Sousa,* 

*Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira,* 

*Cintya Cordovil Rodrigues,* 

*Antônio Robson Batista de Carvalho,* 

*and Raul Nunes de Carvalho Junior*

*Wanessa Almeida da Costa, Cinthya Elen Pereira de Lima,* 

*Fernanda Wariss Figueiredo Bezerra, Jorddy Neves da Cruz,* 

*Priscila do Nascimento Bezerra, Pedro Alam de Araújo Sarges,* 

One of the main reasons for environmental disturbances such as declination in pasture productivity and biodiversity losses is the high infestation of herbaceous weeds, generally referred to as "Juquira" in the Amazon region. If they are not adequately controlled, such infestation might lead to degradation of pasture, resulting in complete loss of productivity and subsequent abandonment of the area. In this sense, this chapter aims to describe the main invasive species present in the Amazon region, as well as to characterize both the old and innovative techniques of use in agriculture, in large and small scale, for the control of agricultural pests.

In the last years, large areas of forest in the Brazilian Amazon have been deforested for agricultural activities. Due to some changes in environmental conditions in these areas, some native plant species, which were originally restricted to the edges of forests or clearings, increased in abundance. As a consequence, these species ecological and agronomic importance has changed significantly. For example, many have become important weeds in active farming or have thrived in abandoned areas [1]. In view of this, vegetative invasions are among the main causes of biodiversity loss. In this context, environments subject to anthropic disturbances, such as the Amazon region, are considered more prone to propagation and invasion of

**Keywords:** Juquira, weed control, Amazon region, agriculture, infestation

species that cause degradation and biological variety loss [2–4].

*Daniel Santiago Pereira, Antônio Pedro Silva de Souza Filho*

*Sebastião Gomes Silva, Renato Macedo Cordeiro,* 

## **Chapter 2**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

[37] Srivastava S, Dvivedi A, Shykla RV. Invasive alien species of terrestrial vegetation of north eastern Uttar Pradesh. International Journal of

Forest Research. 2014;**2014**:1-9

[38] Udaykumar M, Bharathidasan E, Sekar T. Invasive alien flora of Thiruvallur District, Tamil Nadu, India. Scholars Academic Journal of Biosciences. 2014;**2**(4):295-306

[39] Wu SH, Hsieh CF, Rejmanek M. Catalogue of the naturalized flora of Taiwan. Taiwania. 2004;**49**(1):16-31

district of Manipur and their control. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2015;**1**(2):616-626

**20**

## Invasive Species in the Amazon

*Wanessa Almeida da Costa, Cinthya Elen Pereira de Lima, Sérgio Henrique Brabo de Sousa, Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira, Fernanda Wariss Figueiredo Bezerra, Jorddy Neves da Cruz, Sebastião Gomes Silva, Renato Macedo Cordeiro, Cintya Cordovil Rodrigues, Antônio Robson Batista de Carvalho, Priscila do Nascimento Bezerra, Pedro Alam de Araújo Sarges, Daniel Santiago Pereira, Antônio Pedro Silva de Souza Filho and Raul Nunes de Carvalho Junior*

#### **Abstract**

One of the main reasons for environmental disturbances such as declination in pasture productivity and biodiversity losses is the high infestation of herbaceous weeds, generally referred to as "Juquira" in the Amazon region. If they are not adequately controlled, such infestation might lead to degradation of pasture, resulting in complete loss of productivity and subsequent abandonment of the area. In this sense, this chapter aims to describe the main invasive species present in the Amazon region, as well as to characterize both the old and innovative techniques of use in agriculture, in large and small scale, for the control of agricultural pests.

**Keywords:** Juquira, weed control, Amazon region, agriculture, infestation

#### **1. Introduction**

In the last years, large areas of forest in the Brazilian Amazon have been deforested for agricultural activities. Due to some changes in environmental conditions in these areas, some native plant species, which were originally restricted to the edges of forests or clearings, increased in abundance. As a consequence, these species ecological and agronomic importance has changed significantly. For example, many have become important weeds in active farming or have thrived in abandoned areas [1]. In view of this, vegetative invasions are among the main causes of biodiversity loss. In this context, environments subject to anthropic disturbances, such as the Amazon region, are considered more prone to propagation and invasion of species that cause degradation and biological variety loss [2–4].

Weeds interfere with agricultural crops by reducing mainly the yield. This interference occurs due to the competition for water, light, nutrients, and chemical inhibition, affecting the germination and development of cultivated plants. Indirectly, weed species can cause damage to crops by harboring insect pests, fungi, and nematodes and make it difficult to harvest and also depreciate the harvested product quality [5].

According to Lorenzi [6], the weed conception is relative as no plant is exclusively harmful. On the other hand, cultivated plants correspond to those species sown or cultivated by man, while wild plants are all plant species that are born and reproduce spontaneously, which may interfere with crop production, domestic animals welfare, and the view aspect where they occur [6, 7]. Invasive plants are defined as any plants, either cultivated or wild, that vegetate in places where their presence is not desired [7].

Weeds have emerged from a dynamic process of evolution by adapting itself to environmental disturbances caused by nature or man through agriculture. This evolution continues until today in response to the agriculture modernization. Among the modern techniques used in agriculture, the herbicides used to control weeds have provided a fairly rapid evolution, making them in some situations resistant to these chemicals. The evolution of weed population resistant to herbicides is a growing problem in many countries. Thus, many research works are conducted, especially in the last 20 years, in order to study distribution, resistance mechanisms, genetics, and management of these populations [8].

According to da Silva et al. [9], in the cultivated pasture areas, the invasive plants correspond to the main maintenance cost factor. However, the relevance of their role in ecosystems and the available information on the biology and management of these plants is limited, with the majority of them being floristic or relating to the elaboration of control strategies, such as those mentioned in Dias Filho [1], Mascarenhas and Dutra [10], and Dutra et al. [11] work. Studies show that there are innumerable direct and indirect effects of invasive plants on man's agricultural activities, ranging from competition for essential mineral nutrients, light, water, and space, to alternative lodging of pests, nematodes, and parasitic plants [6, 12, 13].

In this sense, the objective of this work was to characterize some of the most commonly found invasive species in the Amazon, as well as to describe the main methods of these weed control.

#### **2. Main invasive species in the Amazon region**

#### **2.1 Pau-de-lacre (***Vismia guianensis* **(Aubl.) Choisy)**

For invasive plants, successful invasion may be related to superiority in competition with native species. In this scenario, persistent perennial species are the ones that cause the most damages and live for several years and, in most cases, reproduce both by seeds (sexed) and vegetative (asexual) [14]. In this category, there are the most problematic species for agricultural pastures, such as lacre (*Vismia guianensis*) (**Figure 1**), which are inconvenient mainly for the extensive or semi-intensive production systems [15, 16]. *Vismia guianensis* is a plant, which belongs to the family Hypericaceae, order Malpighiales, and class Magnoliopsida, and it is distributed in North and Northeast Brazil [15, 16].

*Vismia guianensis* species, commonly known in the north of Brazil by the name of "pau-de-lacre," is a rough perennial plant with a brown coloration [18]. The leaves are greenish and shiny, and on the dorsal part (bottom), they are rough and ferruginous in color. When the leaves are removed, an orange colored viscous liquid flows from

**23**

long and 1 to 2 cm width [22].

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

[14, 16, 17].

**Figure 1.**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

*Species lacre (Vismia guianensis), adapted from [17].*

the cut, and the inflorescences of this species present yellow flowers with globally green fruits, containing a large number of seeds. *V*. *guianensis* species is a bushy plant, distributed in the forest edge, being able to reach from 2 to 5 m height [19]. The flowering extends from November to March, extending until May; in some individuals, the peak of flowering occurs between December and January. The fruits conserve color even when mature, thus visually impossible to distinguish from the immature

*V. guianensis* propagates aggressively from the stems and roots. This process, according to [19], is the main stimulus to growth after the cutting or burning of the species propagation areas. And one of the main problems arising from the *V. guianensis* dispersion is the competition for environmental factors (light, water, nutrients, and space) with native or cultivated plants in the environment [20]. This species also has high growth, proliferation, and dispersal capacity and is capable of

Another invasive species frequently found in agricultural production pastures is the *Paspalum virgatum*, commonly known as "capim-navalha" (**Figure 2**). It is an invading pasture grass, recognized as a weed in the Amazon. Its propagation leads to diseases that cause progressive death of susceptible grasses, opening space for the colonization of weeds and leading to pasture degradation [15]. *Paspalum virgatum* is a plant species, which belongs to the family Poaceae, order Gramineae, Monocotyledons class, with hypogynic stamens. It is a perennial, herbaceous, erect weed, with a size of up to 1.50 m height, has a great protein value, but when adult, it becomes fibrous and not palatable to animals. Its flowering occurs between the months of October and May, season of greater intensity of rains, especially in Amazonian regions. Plants of this species usually inhabit humid environments,

Capim-navalha (*P. virgatum*) is a Central America and South America native species [21]. In Brazil, it is found in all states of the North, especially in humid areas with high multiplication capacity. Capim-navalha also receives other denominations, such as navalhão, capim-duro, capim-cabeçudo, capim-taripucu, and capim-capivara [15]. *P. virgatum* is a cespitosa and rhizomatous grass, with clumps reaching 1.5 m in height, fibrous roots and upright leaves with 50 to 75 cm

borders of streams, rivers and are also frequently found in pastures [15].

modifying the composition, structure, or ecosystem function.

**2.2 Capim-navalha (***Paspalum virgatum* **L. (Gramineae))**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

product quality [5].

presence is not desired [7].

methods of these weed control.

North and Northeast Brazil [15, 16].

genetics, and management of these populations [8].

tive lodging of pests, nematodes, and parasitic plants [6, 12, 13].

**2. Main invasive species in the Amazon region**

**2.1 Pau-de-lacre (***Vismia guianensis* **(Aubl.) Choisy)**

Weeds interfere with agricultural crops by reducing mainly the yield. This interference occurs due to the competition for water, light, nutrients, and chemical inhibition, affecting the germination and development of cultivated plants. Indirectly, weed species can cause damage to crops by harboring insect pests, fungi, and nematodes and make it difficult to harvest and also depreciate the harvested

According to Lorenzi [6], the weed conception is relative as no plant is exclusively harmful. On the other hand, cultivated plants correspond to those species sown or cultivated by man, while wild plants are all plant species that are born and reproduce spontaneously, which may interfere with crop production, domestic animals welfare, and the view aspect where they occur [6, 7]. Invasive plants are defined as any plants, either cultivated or wild, that vegetate in places where their

Weeds have emerged from a dynamic process of evolution by adapting itself to environmental disturbances caused by nature or man through agriculture. This evolution continues until today in response to the agriculture modernization. Among the modern techniques used in agriculture, the herbicides used to control weeds have provided a fairly rapid evolution, making them in some situations resistant to these chemicals. The evolution of weed population resistant to herbicides is a growing problem in many countries. Thus, many research works are conducted, especially in the last 20 years, in order to study distribution, resistance mechanisms,

According to da Silva et al. [9], in the cultivated pasture areas, the invasive plants correspond to the main maintenance cost factor. However, the relevance of their role in ecosystems and the available information on the biology and management of these plants is limited, with the majority of them being floristic or relating to the elaboration of control strategies, such as those mentioned in Dias Filho [1], Mascarenhas and Dutra [10], and Dutra et al. [11] work. Studies show that there are innumerable direct and indirect effects of invasive plants on man's agricultural activities, ranging from competition for essential mineral nutrients, light, water, and space, to alterna-

In this sense, the objective of this work was to characterize some of the most commonly found invasive species in the Amazon, as well as to describe the main

For invasive plants, successful invasion may be related to superiority in competition with native species. In this scenario, persistent perennial species are the ones that cause the most damages and live for several years and, in most cases, reproduce both by seeds (sexed) and vegetative (asexual) [14]. In this category, there are the most problematic species for agricultural pastures, such as lacre (*Vismia guianensis*) (**Figure 1**), which are inconvenient mainly for the extensive or semi-intensive production systems [15, 16]. *Vismia guianensis* is a plant, which belongs to the family Hypericaceae, order Malpighiales, and class Magnoliopsida, and it is distributed in

*Vismia guianensis* species, commonly known in the north of Brazil by the name of "pau-de-lacre," is a rough perennial plant with a brown coloration [18]. The leaves are greenish and shiny, and on the dorsal part (bottom), they are rough and ferruginous in color. When the leaves are removed, an orange colored viscous liquid flows from

**22**

**Figure 1.** *Species lacre (Vismia guianensis), adapted from [17].*

the cut, and the inflorescences of this species present yellow flowers with globally green fruits, containing a large number of seeds. *V*. *guianensis* species is a bushy plant, distributed in the forest edge, being able to reach from 2 to 5 m height [19]. The flowering extends from November to March, extending until May; in some individuals, the peak of flowering occurs between December and January. The fruits conserve color even when mature, thus visually impossible to distinguish from the immature [14, 16, 17].

*V. guianensis* propagates aggressively from the stems and roots. This process, according to [19], is the main stimulus to growth after the cutting or burning of the species propagation areas. And one of the main problems arising from the *V. guianensis* dispersion is the competition for environmental factors (light, water, nutrients, and space) with native or cultivated plants in the environment [20]. This species also has high growth, proliferation, and dispersal capacity and is capable of modifying the composition, structure, or ecosystem function.

#### **2.2 Capim-navalha (***Paspalum virgatum* **L. (Gramineae))**

Another invasive species frequently found in agricultural production pastures is the *Paspalum virgatum*, commonly known as "capim-navalha" (**Figure 2**). It is an invading pasture grass, recognized as a weed in the Amazon. Its propagation leads to diseases that cause progressive death of susceptible grasses, opening space for the colonization of weeds and leading to pasture degradation [15]. *Paspalum virgatum* is a plant species, which belongs to the family Poaceae, order Gramineae, Monocotyledons class, with hypogynic stamens. It is a perennial, herbaceous, erect weed, with a size of up to 1.50 m height, has a great protein value, but when adult, it becomes fibrous and not palatable to animals. Its flowering occurs between the months of October and May, season of greater intensity of rains, especially in Amazonian regions. Plants of this species usually inhabit humid environments, borders of streams, rivers and are also frequently found in pastures [15].

Capim-navalha (*P. virgatum*) is a Central America and South America native species [21]. In Brazil, it is found in all states of the North, especially in humid areas with high multiplication capacity. Capim-navalha also receives other denominations, such as navalhão, capim-duro, capim-cabeçudo, capim-taripucu, and capim-capivara [15]. *P. virgatum* is a cespitosa and rhizomatous grass, with clumps reaching 1.5 m in height, fibrous roots and upright leaves with 50 to 75 cm long and 1 to 2 cm width [22].

**Figure 2.** *Capim-navalha (Paspalum virgatum), adapted from [15].*

The problems caused by their high multiplication capacity compete with fodder (common name given to feeding or lining the place where the animal sleeps), especially in moist soils where cattle graze only young plants of capim-navalha, while the equines appreciate the seeds and help to spread the infestation in the pasture. It also interferes negatively on plant growth through competition for water, nutrients, and allelopathy, with influence on pasture establishment and pasture regrowth ability after grazing and control difficulty by conventional methods [9, 15].

#### **2.3 Malícia (***Mimosa pudica* **L.)**

*Mimosa pudica* L (**Figure 3**) is an invasive plant species, belonging to the genus *Mimosa*, subfamily Mimosoideae, family Fabaceae or Leguminosae and order Fabales [23]. *M. pudica* L. is a semi-prostrate herb, also very found in the Amazon, prickly or underbush up to 0.5 m height [24], of branched stems, with numerous bristly and deflected hairs [25]. The leaves are very sensitive, folding when touched

**25**

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

and digitally dividing with one or two pairs of sessile, alternates, petiolate, stipulated and linear lanceolate hairs [24, 25]; the flowers on the globular head are pink with prickly peduncles, while the fruits are indehiscent, simple, dry, with 1–1.6 cm

Willd.) DC., and *Mimosa pudica var. unijuga* (Walp. & Duchass.) Griseb [29].

and South America and with excellent adaptation in Brazil, especially in the Amazon region [29, 31]. According to Azmi et al. [25], perhaps it is native to many or all the tropics of the New World, and today its distribution may be pantropical. It grows more in well drained soils, but also grows in scalded or eroded soils, soils with low concentrations of nutrients, at sea level or at altitude up to 1300 m, intolerant to shade, not competing with large vegetation, or growing under the canopy of trees [25]. This species is an invasive plant of pastures, agricultural areas, orchards, roadsides and roads, cut areas, areas disturbed by construction, polluted areas, among other productive areas of commercial and/or open fields [24, 25, 30]. The adaptation and proliferation of this weed is due to factors such as large seed production and anti-herbivore defenses (this occurs with the leaves rapid movement and the petiole decline) [25, 32–34]. These leaves are also in response to stressors such as electrostimulation, wound, wind, vibration, touch, drought, change of lighting, and warm or cold stimuli, which help the plant to protect itself or adapt to a particular environment condition where the vegetable is inserted [25, 27], such as at light levels [25, 27, 28]. In addition, in the plant radicle nodules occurs a symbiotic bacterial association that transforms the atmospheric nitrogen in a useful way for the plant, benefiting its development [30]. This species also has cylindrical roots with a slightly rough surface or wrinkled longitudinally, tapered, with secondary and tertiary ramifications, varying in length and thick up to 2 cm [24]. They are still capable of producing carbon disulfide, which selectively inhibits the rhizosphere colonization by mycorrhizal and pathogenic fungi [25]; and finally, the soils, which

*M. pudica* is known with several colloquial names. The most recurrent are: malícia [26], planta tímida, planta sensível, and planta humilde [24, 27, 28]. This invasive plant species belongs to the Fabaceae family [29, 30], showing the following variations: *Mimosa pudica* var. hispida Brenan, *Mimosa pudica* var. tetrandra (Humb. & Bonpl. ex

This species is native to Africa and Asia, but it is common to be found in North

This plant produces the amino acid mimosine and its metabolite, 3-hydroxy-4-(1H)-pyridone (DHP) which, when ingested, is toxic to horses, cattle, pigs, and sheep, causing hair loss, low growth, oral ulcerations, and goiter not prevented by

Another important invasive species is the *Senna obtusifolia* (**Figure 4**)*.* This is an invasive and erect stem plant without spines, measuring from 1.5 to 2.0 m in height, and the leaves are in pairs with three pairs of leaflets, hairless, and not brittle [36]. The name *Senna obtusifolia* comes from Latin *obtus* (opaque or blind) and *fólio* (leaf) [37]. This species of invasive plant is very common, infesting crops in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is an annual plant with woody base, belonging to the Fabaceae family, subfamily Caesalpinioideae, and order Fabales that reproduces itself by seeds, that are in the form of a cluster with yellow petals and sprout especially in spring and summer [38–40]. In the same way as other invasive species, *Senna obtusifolia* produces seeds on a large scale [41]. In the case of this species, this is due to the fruits with multiple seeds [38]. It also has an ultra-aggressive radicle system, giving it a high competitive capacity, even in periods when the soil has low

in length and 0.4–0.5 cm in width, housing two to five seeds [24].

are often burned, allow the spread of this weed [27].

**2.4 Mata-pasto (***Senna obtusifolia* **(L.) Irwin & Barneby)**

iodine supplementation [35].

**Figure 3.** *Malícia (Mimosa pudica L.)*

#### *Invasive Species in the Amazon DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

**2.3 Malícia (***Mimosa pudica* **L.)**

*Capim-navalha (Paspalum virgatum), adapted from [15].*

The problems caused by their high multiplication capacity compete with fodder (common name given to feeding or lining the place where the animal sleeps), especially in moist soils where cattle graze only young plants of capim-navalha, while the equines appreciate the seeds and help to spread the infestation in the pasture. It also interferes negatively on plant growth through competition for water, nutrients, and allelopathy, with influence on pasture establishment and pasture regrowth ability after grazing and control difficulty by conventional methods [9, 15].

*Mimosa pudica* L (**Figure 3**) is an invasive plant species, belonging to the genus

*Mimosa*, subfamily Mimosoideae, family Fabaceae or Leguminosae and order Fabales [23]. *M. pudica* L. is a semi-prostrate herb, also very found in the Amazon, prickly or underbush up to 0.5 m height [24], of branched stems, with numerous bristly and deflected hairs [25]. The leaves are very sensitive, folding when touched

**24**

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 2.**

*Malícia (Mimosa pudica L.)*

and digitally dividing with one or two pairs of sessile, alternates, petiolate, stipulated and linear lanceolate hairs [24, 25]; the flowers on the globular head are pink with prickly peduncles, while the fruits are indehiscent, simple, dry, with 1–1.6 cm in length and 0.4–0.5 cm in width, housing two to five seeds [24].

*M. pudica* is known with several colloquial names. The most recurrent are: malícia [26], planta tímida, planta sensível, and planta humilde [24, 27, 28]. This invasive plant species belongs to the Fabaceae family [29, 30], showing the following variations: *Mimosa pudica* var. hispida Brenan, *Mimosa pudica* var. tetrandra (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) DC., and *Mimosa pudica var. unijuga* (Walp. & Duchass.) Griseb [29].

This species is native to Africa and Asia, but it is common to be found in North and South America and with excellent adaptation in Brazil, especially in the Amazon region [29, 31]. According to Azmi et al. [25], perhaps it is native to many or all the tropics of the New World, and today its distribution may be pantropical.

It grows more in well drained soils, but also grows in scalded or eroded soils, soils with low concentrations of nutrients, at sea level or at altitude up to 1300 m, intolerant to shade, not competing with large vegetation, or growing under the canopy of trees [25]. This species is an invasive plant of pastures, agricultural areas, orchards, roadsides and roads, cut areas, areas disturbed by construction, polluted areas, among other productive areas of commercial and/or open fields [24, 25, 30].

The adaptation and proliferation of this weed is due to factors such as large seed production and anti-herbivore defenses (this occurs with the leaves rapid movement and the petiole decline) [25, 32–34]. These leaves are also in response to stressors such as electrostimulation, wound, wind, vibration, touch, drought, change of lighting, and warm or cold stimuli, which help the plant to protect itself or adapt to a particular environment condition where the vegetable is inserted [25, 27], such as at light levels [25, 27, 28]. In addition, in the plant radicle nodules occurs a symbiotic bacterial association that transforms the atmospheric nitrogen in a useful way for the plant, benefiting its development [30]. This species also has cylindrical roots with a slightly rough surface or wrinkled longitudinally, tapered, with secondary and tertiary ramifications, varying in length and thick up to 2 cm [24]. They are still capable of producing carbon disulfide, which selectively inhibits the rhizosphere colonization by mycorrhizal and pathogenic fungi [25]; and finally, the soils, which are often burned, allow the spread of this weed [27].

This plant produces the amino acid mimosine and its metabolite, 3-hydroxy-4-(1H)-pyridone (DHP) which, when ingested, is toxic to horses, cattle, pigs, and sheep, causing hair loss, low growth, oral ulcerations, and goiter not prevented by iodine supplementation [35].

#### **2.4 Mata-pasto (***Senna obtusifolia* **(L.) Irwin & Barneby)**

Another important invasive species is the *Senna obtusifolia* (**Figure 4**)*.* This is an invasive and erect stem plant without spines, measuring from 1.5 to 2.0 m in height, and the leaves are in pairs with three pairs of leaflets, hairless, and not brittle [36]. The name *Senna obtusifolia* comes from Latin *obtus* (opaque or blind) and *fólio* (leaf) [37]. This species of invasive plant is very common, infesting crops in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is an annual plant with woody base, belonging to the Fabaceae family, subfamily Caesalpinioideae, and order Fabales that reproduces itself by seeds, that are in the form of a cluster with yellow petals and sprout especially in spring and summer [38–40]. In the same way as other invasive species, *Senna obtusifolia* produces seeds on a large scale [41]. In the case of this species, this is due to the fruits with multiple seeds [38]. It also has an ultra-aggressive radicle system, giving it a high competitive capacity, even in periods when the soil has low

**Figure 4.** *Mata-pasto (Senna obtusifolia).*

hydric availability [39], although it does not present nitrogen fixing nodules in the roots, which is common in many species of *Senna* and that is of extreme importance for invasive plants [41].

Researchers believe that *Senna obtusifolia* originates in the Caribbean and in tropical South America [40], but has spread widely and exhibits a global pantropical distribution [39, 40], as it can be found in Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Central America, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, South America, Caribbean, USA, and Australia [37, 40]. This species is present also in environments of 1600 m altitude, as in Mexico and Tanzania [40].

It is known by many different names in different parts of the world, but the most common are: mata-pasto [26, 36], sicklepod [39], fedegoso, and Feijão-Java [37, 40]. It is a very aggressive weed of agricultural areas of a wide variety of crops and in several countries, being predominant in plantations of soybean, peanuts, cotton, sugarcane, corn, disturbed areas, such as animal husbandry pastures, and open ecosystems [37–40, 42].

Weed competition and interference affect agricultural productivity, thereby significantly reducing the productivity of the planted crop, as well as altering the structure and function of the local natural ecosystem [40]. Another prejudice caused by *Senna obtusifolia* occurs when bovine animals consume the green leaves and fruits in pastures and/or feed contaminated with leaves, stems, and seeds of the plant, causing serious poisoning, which can lead the animal to death [36].

#### **2.5 Tiririca (***Cyperus rotundus* **L.)**

*Cyperus rotundus* L. species (**Figure 5**), also known as tiririca or erva-cidreira, belongs to the Cyperaceae family. This is the third largest family of monocotyledonous plants [43]. It is a colonial herb, perennial, has 7–40 cm of height with fibrous roots, and reproduces largely by rhizomes and tubers. Rhizomes can grow in any direction on the ground, those growing up produce shoots and roots; the rhizomes that grow down horizontally form individual tubers or tuber chains. Mature individual tubers are reddish brown, about 12 mm thick and ranging between 10 and 35 mm in length. Tuberous roots act as the main dispersion units over time, remaining dormant in the soil for long periods. Tuber dormancy causes irregular emergence, contributing to the persistence of the propagules of this species [44].

**27**

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

rarely produced [44].

*Tiririca (Cyperus rotundus).*

**Figure 5.**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

The leaves are dark green, bright, narrow, and similar to herbs, ranging from 5 to 12 mm wide, and 50 cm long. The vertical stems support a branched inflorescence with bisexual flowers with three stamens, and a pistil with three stigmas. Nuts are

*Cyperus rotundus* is a weedy plant that is difficult to handle and causes damages in several commercial crops. Damage results from competition throughout the cycle, but the most critical periods are in the early stages of crop development and crop reforms. For it being a perennial species, and for its broad adaptability to many agricultural environments and the ability to reproduce sexually and asexually, *C.* 

On the other hand, *Cyperus rotundus* has its medicinal imprint. It is widespread in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world [46] and is considered to have originated in India for over 2000 years and is regarded as one of the best herbs for medicinal purposes. Studies indicate that the rhizomes of *C. rotundus* are used as traditional remedies for the treatment of stomach and intestinal disorders and inflammatory diseases in Asian countries [47–49]. Studies on the ethnobotanical use of *C. rotundus* showed that rhizomes were used to treat diseases of aging, apoptosis, atherosclerosis, cancer, cystitis, epilepsy, genotoxicity, hirsutism, nociception, and prostatitis [50]. It is reported that the tuberous part of *C. rotundus* is used for the treatment of dysmenorrhea and menstrual irregularities since antiquity [51].

The species *Taraxacum officinale* (dente-de-leão) (**Figure 6**) is a perennial herb native of Europe, considered an aggressive invasive species worldwide [52]. In its

*rotundus* is among the 20 most damaging species in the world [45].

**2.6 Dente-de-leão (***Taraxacum officinale* **L. Weber ex FH Wigg)**

*Invasive Species in the Amazon DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

for invasive plants [41].

*Mata-pasto (Senna obtusifolia).*

**Figure 4.**

ecosystems [37–40, 42].

**2.5 Tiririca (***Cyperus rotundus* **L.)**

death [36].

hydric availability [39], although it does not present nitrogen fixing nodules in the roots, which is common in many species of *Senna* and that is of extreme importance

Researchers believe that *Senna obtusifolia* originates in the Caribbean and in tropical South America [40], but has spread widely and exhibits a global pantropical distribution [39, 40], as it can be found in Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Central America, Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, South America, Caribbean, USA, and Australia [37, 40]. This species is present also in

It is known by many different names in different parts of the world, but the most common are: mata-pasto [26, 36], sicklepod [39], fedegoso, and Feijão-Java [37, 40]. It is a very aggressive weed of agricultural areas of a wide variety of crops and in several countries, being predominant in plantations of soybean, peanuts, cotton, sugarcane, corn, disturbed areas, such as animal husbandry pastures, and open

Weed competition and interference affect agricultural productivity, thereby

*Cyperus rotundus* L. species (**Figure 5**), also known as tiririca or erva-cidreira, belongs to the Cyperaceae family. This is the third largest family of monocotyledonous plants [43]. It is a colonial herb, perennial, has 7–40 cm of height with fibrous roots, and reproduces largely by rhizomes and tubers. Rhizomes can grow in any direction on the ground, those growing up produce shoots and roots; the rhizomes that grow down horizontally form individual tubers or tuber chains. Mature individual tubers are reddish brown, about 12 mm thick and ranging between 10 and 35 mm in length. Tuberous roots act as the main dispersion units over time, remaining dormant in the soil for long periods. Tuber dormancy causes irregular emergence, contributing to the persistence of the propagules of this

significantly reducing the productivity of the planted crop, as well as altering the structure and function of the local natural ecosystem [40]. Another prejudice caused by *Senna obtusifolia* occurs when bovine animals consume the green leaves and fruits in pastures and/or feed contaminated with leaves, stems, and seeds of the plant, causing serious poisoning, which can lead the animal to

environments of 1600 m altitude, as in Mexico and Tanzania [40].

**26**

species [44].

**Figure 5.** *Tiririca (Cyperus rotundus).*

The leaves are dark green, bright, narrow, and similar to herbs, ranging from 5 to 12 mm wide, and 50 cm long. The vertical stems support a branched inflorescence with bisexual flowers with three stamens, and a pistil with three stigmas. Nuts are rarely produced [44].

*Cyperus rotundus* is a weedy plant that is difficult to handle and causes damages in several commercial crops. Damage results from competition throughout the cycle, but the most critical periods are in the early stages of crop development and crop reforms. For it being a perennial species, and for its broad adaptability to many agricultural environments and the ability to reproduce sexually and asexually, *C. rotundus* is among the 20 most damaging species in the world [45].

On the other hand, *Cyperus rotundus* has its medicinal imprint. It is widespread in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world [46] and is considered to have originated in India for over 2000 years and is regarded as one of the best herbs for medicinal purposes. Studies indicate that the rhizomes of *C. rotundus* are used as traditional remedies for the treatment of stomach and intestinal disorders and inflammatory diseases in Asian countries [47–49]. Studies on the ethnobotanical use of *C. rotundus* showed that rhizomes were used to treat diseases of aging, apoptosis, atherosclerosis, cancer, cystitis, epilepsy, genotoxicity, hirsutism, nociception, and prostatitis [50]. It is reported that the tuberous part of *C. rotundus* is used for the treatment of dysmenorrhea and menstrual irregularities since antiquity [51].

#### **2.6 Dente-de-leão (***Taraxacum officinale* **L. Weber ex FH Wigg)**

The species *Taraxacum officinale* (dente-de-leão) (**Figure 6**) is a perennial herb native of Europe, considered an aggressive invasive species worldwide [52]. In its

**Figure 6.** *Planta dente-de-leão (Taraxacum officinale), adapted from [23].*

native distribution, *T. officinale* is present in alpine environments, mainly restricted to disturbed sites [53].

Widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, the *Taraxacum* genus is a member of the Asteraceae family, of Cichorioideae subfamily. *Taraxacum officinale* (dente-deleão) is a perennial stemless weed, green leaves are grouped at the plant base, and the whole herb contains white latex. The flowering stems stand out with yellow flowers. Dente-de-leão plant is deeply ingrained, which means that the plant is also capable of producing a new plant even after its aerial part has been clearly cut. The herb is harvested between spring and autumn when the plant begins to bloom. Whole herbs are cleaned and dried in the sun until their moisture content is less than 13.0% [54].

*Taraxacum officinale* shows high tolerance to abiotic stress and efficient use of resources due to high plasticity in morphological and physiological characteristics [55–57]. Thus, when it presents favorable abiotic conditions, *T. officinale* shows greater abundance, physiological performance, accumulation of biomass, survival, and seed production [58, 59].

*Taraxacum officinale* has already been recognized as a useful passive bioindicator for heavy metals in urban areas [60], as well as a potential indicator for several trace elements, but only in highly polluted industrial areas. In response to vestigial elements, this species exhibits some micromorphological alterations. However, the lack of visual effects and the occurrence in industrial areas of medium pollution with reduction of heavy metals content in soils may indicate their potential for bioindication and phytoextraction [61]. It has all the necessary resources for good bioindicators: it is widely spread geographically, characterized by relatively high tolerance to environmental pollutants, and shows a correlation between the pollution level of a certain environment element (air and soil) and these substances concentration (metals heavy, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in plant tissues [62, 63].

#### **3. Traditional methods of weed control**

The invasive plants control has great relevance in agriculture, since these species bring losses to native species, communities, and ecosystems with the loss of their nutrients, decrease in yield, and quality of the crop, bringing direct impacts to human life and other species. Several techniques can be used to reverse, interrupt, or decelerate infested areas making them healthy again.

**29**

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

**3.1 Chemical methods**

line collection [70].

**3.2 Physical methods**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

physical, and biological methods [65, 66].

limits, which determines an environmental problem [69].

cultivars are more sensitive than others to certain herbicides [68].

There are methods used to reduce the development and performance of invasive plants. The three most viewed are: (a) prevention, which involves preventive measures to introduce these plants into an ecosystem, (b) eradication, which contemplates the extermination, including its seeds however studies show that it is practically impossible to be carried out in large areas and it is economically unviable, and (c) control, that according to Tu et al. [64], some of the more traditional control options are manual, mechanical, competition between native plants, grazing, herbicides, prescribed fire, solarization, and flooding involving chemical,

The chemical control main advantages are: (a) efficiency; avoids the competition of weeds since the crop implantation; (b) allows controlling weeds in rainy season, when mechanical control is impracticable; (c) does not cause damage to the crop roots; (d) does not revolve the soil; (e) allows better distribution of the economic crop plants in the area; (f) controls weeds in the main crop line; (g) and is of rapid operation. While important for reducing costs and increasing productivity, its indiscriminate use is a global environmental problem as it affects living organisms. Among the disadvantages are the cost, generally higher than the other methods; requires adequate equipment; may be toxic to man and animals; contaminates the environment and can leave residues in soil and food [67, 68]. The intensive use of phenoxyalkanoic acid herbicides in agriculture has an adverse effect on the environment that involves water pollution, among other phenomena. In many countries, phenoxyalkanoic acid herbicides have been found in groundwater, surface, and potable water in concentrations that have exceeded the maximum permissible

Chemical control is important mainly in places where there is high weed infestation and low availability of water and nutrients, and the time available for control is reduced due to the area size or the lack of high-performance equipment. In large soybean plantations, chemical control is the most commonly used method due to agility and efficiency. Farmers using the chemical method should be aware of the interactions between the variety being used and the herbicide to be applied, as some

It is possible to halve the amount of herbicides without loss in weed control effectiveness and crop yield by combining chemical weed control in line with cross-

The physical control begins with several aspects that range from the use of a suitable crop to the chosen place, study of planting season, and adequate seeds, to the study of characteristics such as configurations, density, soil, and climate. Another physical control occurs with the grinding and pre-incorporation of fertilizers and remaining plants with subsequent plowing in moist soil, as this can considerably reduce the growth of invasive plants. Still evaluating the physical methods, there is a third alternative that is the use of crop rotation, which reduces the incidence not only of invasive plants but also of pests and diseases. And, as a last indication, the mechanic, who uses from hoes, passing through tractors, or even animal traction. This method was widely used for its low cost, and the need of not very modern equipment, so that its range is still great among rural producers and families to contain invasive plants and adequate development of their planting [71].

#### *Invasive Species in the Amazon DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

There are methods used to reduce the development and performance of invasive plants. The three most viewed are: (a) prevention, which involves preventive measures to introduce these plants into an ecosystem, (b) eradication, which contemplates the extermination, including its seeds however studies show that it is practically impossible to be carried out in large areas and it is economically unviable, and (c) control, that according to Tu et al. [64], some of the more traditional control options are manual, mechanical, competition between native plants, grazing, herbicides, prescribed fire, solarization, and flooding involving chemical, physical, and biological methods [65, 66].

#### **3.1 Chemical methods**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

to disturbed sites [53].

*Planta dente-de-leão (Taraxacum officinale), adapted from [23].*

**Figure 6.**

and seed production [58, 59].

**3. Traditional methods of weed control**

or decelerate infested areas making them healthy again.

native distribution, *T. officinale* is present in alpine environments, mainly restricted

Widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, the *Taraxacum* genus is a member of the Asteraceae family, of Cichorioideae subfamily. *Taraxacum officinale* (dente-deleão) is a perennial stemless weed, green leaves are grouped at the plant base, and the whole herb contains white latex. The flowering stems stand out with yellow flowers. Dente-de-leão plant is deeply ingrained, which means that the plant is also capable of producing a new plant even after its aerial part has been clearly cut. The herb is harvested between spring and autumn when the plant begins to bloom. Whole herbs are cleaned and dried in the sun until their moisture content is less than 13.0% [54]. *Taraxacum officinale* shows high tolerance to abiotic stress and efficient use of resources due to high plasticity in morphological and physiological characteristics [55–57]. Thus, when it presents favorable abiotic conditions, *T. officinale* shows greater abundance, physiological performance, accumulation of biomass, survival,

*Taraxacum officinale* has already been recognized as a useful passive bioindicator for heavy metals in urban areas [60], as well as a potential indicator for several trace elements, but only in highly polluted industrial areas. In response to vestigial elements, this species exhibits some micromorphological alterations. However, the lack of visual effects and the occurrence in industrial areas of medium pollution with reduction of heavy metals content in soils may indicate their potential for bioindication and phytoextraction [61]. It has all the necessary resources for good bioindicators: it is widely spread geographically, characterized by relatively high tolerance to environmental pollutants, and shows a correlation between the pollution level of a certain environment element (air and soil) and these substances concentration (metals heavy, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in plant tissues [62, 63].

The invasive plants control has great relevance in agriculture, since these species bring losses to native species, communities, and ecosystems with the loss of their nutrients, decrease in yield, and quality of the crop, bringing direct impacts to human life and other species. Several techniques can be used to reverse, interrupt,

**28**

The chemical control main advantages are: (a) efficiency; avoids the competition of weeds since the crop implantation; (b) allows controlling weeds in rainy season, when mechanical control is impracticable; (c) does not cause damage to the crop roots; (d) does not revolve the soil; (e) allows better distribution of the economic crop plants in the area; (f) controls weeds in the main crop line; (g) and is of rapid operation. While important for reducing costs and increasing productivity, its indiscriminate use is a global environmental problem as it affects living organisms. Among the disadvantages are the cost, generally higher than the other methods; requires adequate equipment; may be toxic to man and animals; contaminates the environment and can leave residues in soil and food [67, 68]. The intensive use of phenoxyalkanoic acid herbicides in agriculture has an adverse effect on the environment that involves water pollution, among other phenomena. In many countries, phenoxyalkanoic acid herbicides have been found in groundwater, surface, and potable water in concentrations that have exceeded the maximum permissible limits, which determines an environmental problem [69].

Chemical control is important mainly in places where there is high weed infestation and low availability of water and nutrients, and the time available for control is reduced due to the area size or the lack of high-performance equipment. In large soybean plantations, chemical control is the most commonly used method due to agility and efficiency. Farmers using the chemical method should be aware of the interactions between the variety being used and the herbicide to be applied, as some cultivars are more sensitive than others to certain herbicides [68].

It is possible to halve the amount of herbicides without loss in weed control effectiveness and crop yield by combining chemical weed control in line with crossline collection [70].

#### **3.2 Physical methods**

The physical control begins with several aspects that range from the use of a suitable crop to the chosen place, study of planting season, and adequate seeds, to the study of characteristics such as configurations, density, soil, and climate. Another physical control occurs with the grinding and pre-incorporation of fertilizers and remaining plants with subsequent plowing in moist soil, as this can considerably reduce the growth of invasive plants. Still evaluating the physical methods, there is a third alternative that is the use of crop rotation, which reduces the incidence not only of invasive plants but also of pests and diseases. And, as a last indication, the mechanic, who uses from hoes, passing through tractors, or even animal traction. This method was widely used for its low cost, and the need of not very modern equipment, so that its range is still great among rural producers and families to contain invasive plants and adequate development of their planting [71].

#### **3.3 Biological methods**

Biological methods are most appreciated in weed control against chemical and physical methods due to the viability of use in any situation. According to Weed Science Society of America [72], the biological control of weeds is defined as "the use of an agent, a complex of agents, or biological processes to bring about weed suppression"; some examples of agents used are arthropods (insects and mites), plant pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes), fish, birds, and other animals. Some advantages in using biological methods compared to other methods are related to the decreased risk of soil, water, and food contamination by herbicide residues, bringing healthier and sustainable cropping systems, besides being low cost and self-sufficient [73].

#### **4. Recent methods of weed control**

#### **4.1 Use of agrochemicals**

The predominant agriculture in the world, in addition to high productivity, is also characterized by its dependence on fossil energy sources, such as fertilizers and pesticides. However, the increasing increase in the use of agrochemicals as it has been happening may not be sustainable over time, not only because these products pollute the environment and promote the intoxication of animals and humans but also because new breeds of insects and new species of invasive plants, both resistant to insecticides are appearing with increasing frequency [74].

The number of cases of resistance to insecticides and fungicides increased rapidly after the 1950s and 1960s [75]. Since the first report by Ryan [76], which observed resistant *Senecio vulgaris* biotypes to the herbicides belonging to the chemical group of the triazines, it have been observed an increasing number of weed species with biotypes resistant not only to triazines but also to other classes of herbicides.

Weed resistance to herbicides may result from biochemical, physiological, morphological, or phenological changes of certain weed biotypes. Many cases of resistance to herbicides result from either altering the herbicide site of action or increasing its metabolism, or the departmentalization and compartmentalization of the herbicide in the plant. Although these general mechanisms are similar to some crop selectivity mechanisms, which allow them to survive herbicide exposure, specific herbicide resistance mechanisms in weeds typically differ substantially from those responsible for crop selectivity [77].

Some natural chemicals are used as a model for obtaining new herbicides. In addition, chemicals with proven allelopathic activity can be concentrated and have their allelopathic effect potentiated in the laboratory [78].

#### **4.2 Alternatives in agricultural pest control**

Over the past seven decades, considerable efforts have been expended to detect plant species with potential for use in a variety of human activities, such as medicine, cosmetics, hygiene, and food industry. Obviously, popular knowledge and medicinal use of many plant species, especially by indigenous communities, for example, played a prominent role at the beginning of the research, allowing studies based on a minimum of available information, which reduced research time and speed advances [79].

Theoretically, all plants are capable of producing chemically highly diversified compounds, some of which have potential for use in weed management. This

**31**

community [82].

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

specificity can be detected in both native and cultivated plants, although in the first—even because they have not been domesticated—such properties may be more auspicious. Identifying and selecting, depending on the degree of toxicity, plants species with potential for such purposes have become a primary activity in many universities' laboratories and research institutes around the world. Good examples

Studies in the literature have shown that certain plants in nature have the ability to synthesize compounds that can act in the development and growth of other organisms in the same ecosystem [82]. For Miller [83], the study of the allelochemicals is fundamental, because the action of such substances is of extreme importance for the understanding of the organism interactions in both natural and agricultural ecosystems. In addition to these aspects, the perception that these plants may provide new prospects for agricultural exploitation adds to the innumerable possibilities of using

are found in the Souza Filho et al. and Iqbal et al. work [80, 81].

biodiversity, not only for microorganisms but also for plant species [79].

Müller [84] proposed the term interference to classify the different types of change that develop among the various components of a plant community. This term was subdivided by Szczepahiski [85] in three groups: allelospoly, allelopathy, and allelomediation. Allelospoly or competition was defined as interference caused by the different components of the ecosystem by removing from the environment elements such as water, nutrients, and light, lowering it to levels that hinder normal development of others. Allelopathy is the alteration caused by the release of a chemical substance, elaborated by one or more components that affect certain elements of the community, and allelomediation or indirect interference is defined as the effects that alter the physical or biological environment, with reflexes in the living beings. Allelopathy is a phenomenon that occurs largely in nature and has been postulated as one of the mechanisms by which some plants may interfere with others in their neighborhoods, changing the pattern and density of vegetation in a plant

From an agronomic point of view, allelopathy is of great interest as it allows not only the selection of pasture plants that can exert a certain level of control of some undesirable species such as invasive plants but also the establishment of grass species and forage legumes that are not strongly allelopathic among them and that can thus compose more

balanced pastures, with favorable effects on productivity and longevity [86].

sensitive to allelochemicals than seedling growth [87].

agricultural biodefensive production [74].

coumarin derivatives [88].

The most frequent studies on allelopathy are related to the effects of plant extracts on the germination and growth of others. In general, germination is less

Chemicals that impose allelopathic influence are called allelochemicals. Allelochemicals have a very diverse chemical nature ranging from simple hydrocarbons to complex polycyclic compounds with high molecular weight. Such compounds are in general short chain fatty acids, essential oils, diterpenes, alkaloids, steroids, phenolic compounds: flavonoids, naphthoquinones, anthraquinones, and

Numerous chemical substances with allelopathic potential are described in the literature, but some chemical classes deserve greater attention [89]. The saponins may be formed by glycosylated triterpenoids with a hydrophilic polysaccharide chain or by

Allelopathy may play an important ecological role in the near future as a source of new chemical substances with possibilities of use in Brazilian agriculture, similar to what already occurs in other countries such as Japan, Germany, and the United States, as a pasture management tool, and/or as supplier of basic structures for

**4.3 Allelopathy: a natural method for weed control**

#### *Invasive Species in the Amazon DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

Biological methods are most appreciated in weed control against chemical and physical methods due to the viability of use in any situation. According to Weed Science Society of America [72], the biological control of weeds is defined as "the use of an agent, a complex of agents, or biological processes to bring about weed suppression"; some examples of agents used are arthropods (insects and mites), plant pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes), fish, birds, and other animals. Some advantages in using biological methods compared to other methods are related to the decreased risk of soil, water, and food contamination by herbicide residues, bringing healthier and sustainable cropping systems, besides being low

The predominant agriculture in the world, in addition to high productivity, is also characterized by its dependence on fossil energy sources, such as fertilizers and pesticides. However, the increasing increase in the use of agrochemicals as it has been happening may not be sustainable over time, not only because these products pollute the environment and promote the intoxication of animals and humans but also because new breeds of insects and new species of invasive plants, both resistant

The number of cases of resistance to insecticides and fungicides increased rapidly after the 1950s and 1960s [75]. Since the first report by Ryan [76], which observed resistant *Senecio vulgaris* biotypes to the herbicides belonging to the chemical group of the triazines, it have been observed an increasing number of weed species with biotypes resistant not only to triazines but also to other classes of herbicides. Weed resistance to herbicides may result from biochemical, physiological, morphological, or phenological changes of certain weed biotypes. Many cases of resistance to herbicides result from either altering the herbicide site of action or increasing its metabolism, or the departmentalization and compartmentalization of the herbicide in the plant. Although these general mechanisms are similar to some crop selectivity mechanisms, which allow them to survive herbicide exposure, specific herbicide resistance mechanisms in weeds typically differ substantially

Some natural chemicals are used as a model for obtaining new herbicides. In addition, chemicals with proven allelopathic activity can be concentrated and have

Over the past seven decades, considerable efforts have been expended to detect plant species with potential for use in a variety of human activities, such as medicine, cosmetics, hygiene, and food industry. Obviously, popular knowledge and medicinal use of many plant species, especially by indigenous communities, for example, played a prominent role at the beginning of the research, allowing studies based on a minimum of available information, which reduced research time and

Theoretically, all plants are capable of producing chemically highly diversified compounds, some of which have potential for use in weed management. This

to insecticides are appearing with increasing frequency [74].

from those responsible for crop selectivity [77].

**4.2 Alternatives in agricultural pest control**

their allelopathic effect potentiated in the laboratory [78].

**3.3 Biological methods**

cost and self-sufficient [73].

**4.1 Use of agrochemicals**

**4. Recent methods of weed control**

**30**

speed advances [79].

specificity can be detected in both native and cultivated plants, although in the first—even because they have not been domesticated—such properties may be more auspicious. Identifying and selecting, depending on the degree of toxicity, plants species with potential for such purposes have become a primary activity in many universities' laboratories and research institutes around the world. Good examples are found in the Souza Filho et al. and Iqbal et al. work [80, 81].

Studies in the literature have shown that certain plants in nature have the ability to synthesize compounds that can act in the development and growth of other organisms in the same ecosystem [82]. For Miller [83], the study of the allelochemicals is fundamental, because the action of such substances is of extreme importance for the understanding of the organism interactions in both natural and agricultural ecosystems.

In addition to these aspects, the perception that these plants may provide new prospects for agricultural exploitation adds to the innumerable possibilities of using biodiversity, not only for microorganisms but also for plant species [79].

#### **4.3 Allelopathy: a natural method for weed control**

Müller [84] proposed the term interference to classify the different types of change that develop among the various components of a plant community. This term was subdivided by Szczepahiski [85] in three groups: allelospoly, allelopathy, and allelomediation. Allelospoly or competition was defined as interference caused by the different components of the ecosystem by removing from the environment elements such as water, nutrients, and light, lowering it to levels that hinder normal development of others. Allelopathy is the alteration caused by the release of a chemical substance, elaborated by one or more components that affect certain elements of the community, and allelomediation or indirect interference is defined as the effects that alter the physical or biological environment, with reflexes in the living beings.

Allelopathy is a phenomenon that occurs largely in nature and has been postulated as one of the mechanisms by which some plants may interfere with others in their neighborhoods, changing the pattern and density of vegetation in a plant community [82].

From an agronomic point of view, allelopathy is of great interest as it allows not only the selection of pasture plants that can exert a certain level of control of some undesirable species such as invasive plants but also the establishment of grass species and forage legumes that are not strongly allelopathic among them and that can thus compose more balanced pastures, with favorable effects on productivity and longevity [86].

The most frequent studies on allelopathy are related to the effects of plant extracts on the germination and growth of others. In general, germination is less sensitive to allelochemicals than seedling growth [87].

Allelopathy may play an important ecological role in the near future as a source of new chemical substances with possibilities of use in Brazilian agriculture, similar to what already occurs in other countries such as Japan, Germany, and the United States, as a pasture management tool, and/or as supplier of basic structures for agricultural biodefensive production [74].

Chemicals that impose allelopathic influence are called allelochemicals. Allelochemicals have a very diverse chemical nature ranging from simple hydrocarbons to complex polycyclic compounds with high molecular weight. Such compounds are in general short chain fatty acids, essential oils, diterpenes, alkaloids, steroids, phenolic compounds: flavonoids, naphthoquinones, anthraquinones, and coumarin derivatives [88].

Numerous chemical substances with allelopathic potential are described in the literature, but some chemical classes deserve greater attention [89]. The saponins may be formed by glycosylated triterpenoids with a hydrophilic polysaccharide chain or by hydrophobic steroids, which give them the detergent property and, consequently, the ability to bind to cell membranes, affecting cellular functioning. They are known for their hemolytic properties and toxicity to molluscs, insects, and fungi [90].

Flavonoids are present in plants in various forms and with varied functions. They include flavonoids, flavones, flavanones, catechins, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and isoflavonoids, among others. In addition to the pigment functions, attractive or repellent of herbivores, protection against UV radiation, these substances have allelopathic effects, being able to inhibit the growth of plants and fungi [82, 91, 92].

Finally, the alkaloids encompass more than 12,000 structures already described, behind only the terpenoids. Approximately 20% of plant species accumulate alkaloids, molecules characterized by low molecular weight, and origin from phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, and lysine [88, 93, 94]. According to Rice [82], several alkaloids are able to inhibit the growth of bacteria, in addition to being toxic to some invertebrates.

Most studies report that allelopathic compounds act as inhibitors of germination and growth [95]. However, some studies have demonstrated that these compounds can also act as growth promoters [96, 97]. Apparently, most if not all organic compounds that are inhibitory in some concentrations are stimulants in lower concentrations [82, 88].


**33**

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

**5. Conclusion**

than those in use.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

Many of these studies approach, under laboratory conditions, the effects of aqueous or even hydroalcoholic crude extracts on seed germination and elongation

It is known that under field conditions, there is no way to separate the effects attributed to competition from those of allelopathy, since the influence of plants on other species in their neighborhood is a complex combination of competition

**Table 1** shows the main weed control methods that are applied in the world.

The weeds are the main bioeconomic factor to impose limitations to the agricultural activities' performance developed in the tropical regions, such as Amazon, especially in the quality and productivity of the pastures offered to grazing animals, which are severely affected by these types of plants. Therefore, its adequate control is of fundamental importance for the most varied aspects, such as profitability, agronomic performance, and activities longevity. Another important aspect is the herbicides indiscriminate use reduction, which, as a consequence reduces the environmental and human health damages. Finally, the search for alternatives to the herbicides on the market, such as the numerous metabolites produced by plants, can provide surprising diversity of chemical structures, which offer excellent prospects for increasing the search for more specific types of herbicides and less damaging

of the radicle and hypocotyl of different weed species [96, 98, 99].

interference and allelopathic chemical reactions [100].

#### **Table 1.**

*Weed control methods in different parts of the world [101–109].*

#### *Invasive Species in the Amazon DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

Many of these studies approach, under laboratory conditions, the effects of aqueous or even hydroalcoholic crude extracts on seed germination and elongation of the radicle and hypocotyl of different weed species [96, 98, 99].

It is known that under field conditions, there is no way to separate the effects attributed to competition from those of allelopathy, since the influence of plants on other species in their neighborhood is a complex combination of competition interference and allelopathic chemical reactions [100].

**Table 1** shows the main weed control methods that are applied in the world.

#### **5. Conclusion**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

to some invertebrates.

concentrations [82, 88].

*Hypericum perforatum*

*Cryptostegia grandiflora*

*Spartina alterniflora*

*Schinus terebinthifoliu*

*Pteridium aquilinum*

*Centaurea maculosa*

hydrophobic steroids, which give them the detergent property and, consequently, the ability to bind to cell membranes, affecting cellular functioning. They are known for

Flavonoids are present in plants in various forms and with varied functions. They include flavonoids, flavones, flavanones, catechins, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and isoflavonoids, among others. In addition to the pigment functions, attractive or repellent of herbivores, protection against UV radiation, these substances have allelopathic effects, being able to inhibit the growth of plants and fungi [82, 91, 92]. Finally, the alkaloids encompass more than 12,000 structures already described,

Most studies report that allelopathic compounds act as inhibitors of germination and growth [95]. However, some studies have demonstrated that these compounds can also act as growth promoters [96, 97]. Apparently, most if not all organic compounds that are inhibitory in some concentrations are stimulants in lower

> Herbicides (modern)

(modern)

(modern)

(modern)

— — Southern and

Cutting and crushing (classic)

— — North America

— — United States of

— — Hawaii—United

Cutting and pruning

Firing, manual and/ or mechanical removal

defoliation

— — Canada

— Firing North America,

— Tropical

Western parts of Australia

Queensland, Australia

Willapa Bay

America

States of America

Northwest Spain

Eastern Oregon (United States of America)

Western United States of America

Northern California

their hemolytic properties and toxicity to molluscs, insects, and fungi [90].

behind only the terpenoids. Approximately 20% of plant species accumulate alkaloids, molecules characterized by low molecular weight, and origin from phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, and lysine [88, 93, 94]. According to Rice [82], several alkaloids are able to inhibit the growth of bacteria, in addition to being toxic

**Invasive species Control methods Site Biological Chemical Physical**

— Herbicides

*—* Herbicides

*Bromus tectorum —* — Cutting and

Herbivorous insects

Rust of *Maravalia cryptostegiae* (modern)

(classic)

(modern)

(modern)

*Crasimorpha infuscata* Hodges

*Acacia dealbata —* Herbicides

Biocontrol (modern)

(modern)

*Weed control methods in different parts of the world [101–109].*

*Chondrilla juncea Aceria chondrillae*

*Euphorbia esula Spurgia capitigena*

*Cirsium arvense Aceria anthocoptes*

**32**

**Table 1.**

The weeds are the main bioeconomic factor to impose limitations to the agricultural activities' performance developed in the tropical regions, such as Amazon, especially in the quality and productivity of the pastures offered to grazing animals, which are severely affected by these types of plants. Therefore, its adequate control is of fundamental importance for the most varied aspects, such as profitability, agronomic performance, and activities longevity. Another important aspect is the herbicides indiscriminate use reduction, which, as a consequence reduces the environmental and human health damages. Finally, the search for alternatives to the herbicides on the market, such as the numerous metabolites produced by plants, can provide surprising diversity of chemical structures, which offer excellent prospects for increasing the search for more specific types of herbicides and less damaging than those in use.

## **Author details**

Wanessa Almeida da Costa1,2\*, Cinthya Elen Pereira de Lima5 , Sérgio Henrique Brabo de Sousa2 , Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira<sup>2</sup> , Fernanda Wariss Figueiredo Bezerra<sup>2</sup> , Jorddy Neves da Cruz3 , Sebastião Gomes Silva<sup>3</sup> , Renato Macedo Cordeiro1,2, Cintya Cordovil Rodrigues1,2, Antônio Robson Batista de Carvalho2 , Priscila do Nascimento Bezerra2 , Pedro Alam de Araújo Sarges5 , Daniel Santiago Pereira4 , Antônio Pedro Silva de Souza Filho4 and Raul Nunes de Carvalho Junior1,2

1 Program of Post-Graduation in Natural Resources Engineering (PRODERNA/ ITEC), Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil

2 LABEX/FEA (Faculty of Food Engineering), Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil

3 Program of Post-Graduation in Chemistry, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil

4 Embrapa Western Amazon, Belém, Pará, Brazil

5 Program of Post-Graduation in Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil

\*Address all correspondence to: wanessa.almeida712@yahoo.com.br

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**35**

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

**References**

RG.2.1.3427.4403

2006;**21**:208-216

2010;**35**:489-504

2008;**6**:65-77

Juiz de Fora; 2010

Nova Odessa; 2008

1982;**5**:43-52

1994;**12**:13-20

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas. 2013;**8**:63-74

[11] Dutra S, Souza Filho APS, Mascarenhas REB, et al. Controle Integrado de Plantas Invasoras em Pastagens Cultivadas no Município de Terra Alta, Nordeste Paraense. 25th ed. Belém: Embrapa Amazônia Oriental (Boletim de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento); 2004

[12] Carvalho M. Manual de Reflorestamento. 1st ed. Sagrada

[13] Pitelli RA. Competição e controle das plantas daninhas em áreas agrícolas.

Série Técnica IPEF, Piracicaba.

[14] Charles-Dominique P. Interrelations between furgivorous vertebrates and pioneer plants: Cecropia, birds and bats in French Guyana. In: Estrada A, Fleming ETH, editors. Furgiveres and Seeds Dispersal.

Dordrecht; 1986. pp. 119-135

[15] Andrade C, Fontes J, Oliveira T, et al. Reforma de pastagens com alta infestação de capim-navalha (*Paspalum virgatum*). 64th ed. Embrapa Acre-Circular Técnica: Rio Branco; 2012

[16] Albuquerque J. Identificação de plantas mvasoras de cultura da região de Manaus. Acta Amaz. 1980;**10**:47-95

[17] Martins MV, Shimizu GH, Bittrich V. Flora da Reserva Ducke, Estado do Amazonas, Brasil: Hypericaceae. Hoehnea. 2018;**45**:361-371

[18] Flora do Brasil 2020 (em construção). Hypericaceae. Jardim Botânico do Rio de

Família: Belém; 2006

1987;**4**:1-24

[10] Mascarenhas REB, Dutra S. Plantas daninhas de uma pastagem cultivada de baixa produtividade no nordeste paraense. Planta Daninha. 1999;**17**:1999

[1] Dias Filho MB. Plantas invasoras em pastagens cultivadas da Amazônia: Estratégias de manejo e controle. 1st ed. Belém: EMBRAPA-CPATU; 1990. Epub ahead of print 1990. DOI: 10.13140/

[2] Traveset A, Richardson DM. Biological invasions as disruptors of plant reproductive mutualisms. Trends in Ecology & Evolution.

[3] Simberloff D, Nuñez MA,

Ledgard NJ, et al. Spread and impact of introduced conifers in South America: Lessons from other southern hemisphere regions. Austral Ecology.

[4] Petenon D, Pivello VR. Plantas invasoras: Representatividade da

mundial. Nature Conservation.

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[6] Lorenzi H. Plantas Daninhas do Brasil: Terrestres, Aquáticas, Parasitas e Tóxicas. 4th ed. Instituto Plantarum:

Composição florística e estrutura de um trecho de mata atlântica de encosta no município de Ubatuba (São Paulo, Brasil). Revista Brasileira de Botanica.

[8] Christoffoleti PJ, Victoria R, Filho S, et al. Resistência de plantas daninhas aos herbicidas. Planta Daninha.

[9] da Silva MF, Gurge ESC, Filho AP d SS, et al. Leguminosae invasive species in cultures in the northeast of Pará, Brazil.

[7] Silva AF, Leitão Filho HF.

pesquisa dos países tropicais no contexto

*Invasive Species in the Amazon DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

#### **References**

*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

**Author details**

Pará, Brazil

Pará, Brazil

Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil

Sérgio Henrique Brabo de Sousa2

Pedro Alam de Araújo Sarges5

Sebastião Gomes Silva<sup>3</sup>

Fernanda Wariss Figueiredo Bezerra<sup>2</sup>

Antônio Robson Batista de Carvalho2

Antônio Pedro Silva de Souza Filho4

Wanessa Almeida da Costa1,2\*, Cinthya Elen Pereira de Lima5

ITEC), Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil

4 Embrapa Western Amazon, Belém, Pará, Brazil

,

,

,

,

, Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira<sup>2</sup>

, Jorddy Neves da Cruz3

, Daniel Santiago Pereira4

1 Program of Post-Graduation in Natural Resources Engineering (PRODERNA/

2 LABEX/FEA (Faculty of Food Engineering), Federal University of Pará, Belém,

3 Program of Post-Graduation in Chemistry, Federal University of Pará, Belém,

5 Program of Post-Graduation in Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of

\*Address all correspondence to: wanessa.almeida712@yahoo.com.br

, Renato Macedo Cordeiro1,2, Cintya Cordovil Rodrigues1,2,

, Priscila do Nascimento Bezerra2

,

and Raul Nunes de Carvalho Junior1,2

**34**

provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

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Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas. 2013;**8**:63-74

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[15] Andrade C, Fontes J, Oliveira T, et al. Reforma de pastagens com alta infestação de capim-navalha (*Paspalum virgatum*). 64th ed. Embrapa Acre-Circular Técnica: Rio Branco; 2012

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PeerJ. 2017;**5**(e3598):1-16

Botany. 2013;**91**:43-47

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Brasileira. 2014;**34**:147-152

January 2018]

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[20] Zenni RD, Ziller SR. An overview of invasive plants in Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Botanica. 2011;**1**:431-446

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**38**

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[95] Periotto F, Perez S. MIS. L. Efeito alelopático de Andira humilis Mart. ex Benth na germinação e no crescimento de *Lactuca sativa* L. e *Raphanus sativus* L. Acta Botânica Brasílica. 2004;**18**:425-430

[96] Yokotani-Tomita K, Goto N, Kosemura S, et al. 0 10 100 concentration (ppm). Phytochemistry. 1998;**47**:1-2

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[106] Winston RL, Schwarzländer M, Hinz HL, et al. Biological Control of Weeds: A World Catalogue of Agents and their Target Weeds. 2014

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**41**

*Invasive Species in the Amazon*

2003;**4**:52-60

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84720*

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*Diversity and Ecology of Invasive Plants*

Sciences. 1999;**18**:773-796

[90] Rizivi S, Rizivi S, Tahir M, et al. Allelopathic interactions in agroforestry systems. Critical Reviews in Plant

[100] Kato-Noguchi H. Isolation and identification of an allelopathic substance in Pisum sativum. Phytochemistry. 2003;**62**:1141-1144

[102] McFadyen RE, Harvey GJ. Distribution and control of rubber vine, Cryptostegia grandiflora, a major weed in northern Queensland. Plant Protection Quarterly. 1990;**5**:152-155

[103] Evans HC, Tomley AJ. Studies on the rust, Maravalia cryptostegiae, a potential biological control agent of rubber-vine weed, Cryptostegia grandiflora (Asclepiadaceae: Periplocoideae), in Australia, III : Host range. Mycopathologia.

[104] Taylor CAZM, Hastings A. Finding optimal control strategies for invasive species: A density-structured model for Spartina alterniflora. Journal of Applied

[105] Sobhian R, Littlefield J, Cristofaro M, et al. Biology and host specificity of Spurgia capitigena (Bremi) (Dipt., Cecidomyiidae), for the biological control of Euphorbia esula L. in North America. Journal of Applied Entomology. 2000;**124**:333-338

[106] Winston RL, Schwarzländer M, Hinz HL, et al. Biological Control of Weeds: A World Catalogue of Agents

and their Target Weeds. 2014

[107] Souza-Alonso P, Lorenzo P, Rubido-Bará M, et al. Forest Ecology and Management Effectiveness of management strategies in Acacia dealbata Link invasion , native vegetation and soil microbial

community responses. Forest Ecology and Management. 2013;**304**:464-472

Ecology. 2004;**41**:1049-1057

Oxiford; 2009

1994;**126**:93-108

[101] Clout MN, Williams PA. Invasives Species Management: A Handbook of Principles and Techniques. New York:

[91] Shimoji H, Yamasaki H. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on alternative respiration of plant mitochondria. Biologia Plantarum. 2005;**49**:117-119

[92] Sakihama Y, Cohen MF, Grace SC, et al. Plant phenolic antioxidant and prooxidant activities: Phenolics-induced oxidative damage mediated by metals in plants. Toxicology. 2002;**177**:67-80

[93] Inderjit I. Plant phenolics in allelopathy. Botanical Review.

[94] Putnam AR. Allelochemicals from plants as herbicides. Weed Technology.

[95] Periotto F, Perez S. MIS. L. Efeito alelopático de Andira humilis Mart. ex Benth na germinação e no crescimento de *Lactuca sativa* L. e *Raphanus sativus* L. Acta Botânica Brasílica.

[96] Yokotani-Tomita K, Goto N, Kosemura S, et al. 0 10 100

concentration (ppm). Phytochemistry.

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[98] Tefera T. Allelopathic effects of *Parthenium hysterophorus* extracts on seed germination and seedling growth of Eragrostis tef. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 2002;**188**:306-310

[99] Inoue M, Santana D, Pereira M, et al. Extratos aquosos de Xylopia aromatica e Annona crassiflora sobre capim-marandu (*Brachiaria brizantha*) e soja. Scientia Agrária. 2009;**10**:245-250

1996;**62**:186-202

1988;**2**:510-518

2004;**18**:425-430

1998;**47**:1-2

**40**

[108] McDonald PM, Abbott CS, Fiddler GO. Density and development of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) in Forest plantations as affected by manual and chemical application. Native Plants. 2003;**4**:52-60

[109] Hempy-Mayer K, Pyke DM. Defoliation effects on bromus tectorum seed production: Implications for grazing. Rangeland Ecology & Management. 2008;**61**:116-123

**43**

Section 2

Impact of Invasive Species

on Ecosystem and Its

Control

Section 2
