**2. Conventional and electric two-wheelers: current situation**

transport is essential to achieve SDG targets related to urban access, reduced health impacts from air pollution and road traffic crashes, clean energy, inefficiency of fossil fuel subsidies, resilient infrastructure, climate change measures and sustainable cities and communities [1].

Exposure to ambient air pollution results in 4.2 million deaths annually [2], and 9 out of 10 urban dwellers breathe air that does not comply with the WHO standards. The transport sector is the largest contributor to PM2.5 pollution [3], with, for example, the economic cost of air pollution from road transport in OECD countries estimated at close to USD 1 trillion per year, measured in terms of the value of lives lost and ill health [4]. In addition, physical inactivity is responsible for 3.2 million deaths annually [5]. Data on noise impacts are limited; however, the health effects from exposure to noise are substantial. In the European Union, 65% of the urban population is exposed to noise above 55 dB, leading to an estimated 1–2 million DALYs annually [6]. Other concerns related to urban transport include increasing congestion and lack of accessibility, social equity and transport justice [7], urban liveability, habitat fragmen-

At the global level, urban (passenger) transport contributed about 2 billion tonnes of CO2

sions are rising the most rapidly among all sectors, this is a major challenge.

and including environmental and social concerns in transport project evaluation.

motivations and aspects such as safety and driver behaviour [13].

to enhance the role of E2W.

2015 or one-quarter of total transport emissions (including international aviation and maritime transport) [4]. In order to meet the Paris Agreement climate change targets of staying well below 2° and aiming for 1.5°, total transport emissions have to be limited to 2–3 billion tonnes in 2050 from approximately 8 billion tonnes today [10]. As transport is where emis-

Traditionally, transport planning has been focussing on providing infrastructure to meet a projected future demand for transport. As Banister argued in his seminal article, 'The Sustainable Mobility Paradigm' [11], addressing the above-mentioned challenges requires fundamental shifts in transport planning. This new paradigm involves, among others, focussing on accessibility of opportunities in the urban space rather than mobility and vehicular travel per se, management of travel demand, considering street as a 'space' rather than a road

Most literature on sustainable mobility considers modal shift away from cars to more environmentally benign modes. Within this, there is a significant and growing amount of research on cycling, with bicycles also enjoying a good reputation with policymakers in most countries. Motorcycles, on the other hand, are, by and large, ignored in sustainable transport research, as well as in policy discussions and climate change literature, although some researches are acknowledging its importance in meeting climate change objectives [12]. Since 2010, more literatures have been published on electric two-wheelers, such as e-bikes and electric scooters, which assess their potential impacts on the mobility systems and the environment, user

This chapter aims to add to existing literature by (1) assessing qualitatively how electric twowheelers (E2W) can contribute to sustainable urban mobility and (2) reviewing policy options

In this chapter, we adopt the following approach. The e-bike is a relatively new vehicle and in fact represents 'the most rapid uptake of alternative fuelled vehicles in the history of motorisation' [13]. E2W thereby change urban mobility ecosystems or regimes, including the vehicle

in

tation [8] and energy security or oil price vulnerability [9].

98 Sustainable Cities - Authenticity, Ambition and Dream

Two-wheelers powered by a combustion engine, including mopeds, scooters and motorcycles, play a key role in transport in many parts of the world. In South and Southeast Asia, the share of two-wheelers in the passenger vehicle population is particularly high, for example, 72% in India [14], 87% in Indonesia and 95% in Vietnam (95%) [15]. The fleet is growing by up to 10% annually in several Asian countries. In Europe, 12% of all registered vehicles are powered two-wheelers, though almost half of these are >250 cc [14] and often used for touring and sports purposes rather than utility mobility. In Brazil, 26% of the vehicle population are motorcycles and in North America, only 3% [14]. In China and Southeast Asia, two-wheelers account for more than a quarter of total passenger transport activity (measured in passengerkm) in 2015, more than any other mode [12].

A motorcycle uses seven times less space compared to a car [16] and is more energy-efficient, even when accounting for a higher average occupancy of cars. Nevertheless, motorcycles are significant sources of air pollution, noise and CO<sup>2</sup> emissions and are involved in a large share of road crashes.

In many cities in Asia, motorcycles are the preferred mode of transport by a large share of the population [17]. In dense cities, for example, Hanoi, accessibility to jobs by motorcycle is higher than by any other modes [18]. It enjoys higher status than a bicycle and is considered more convenient, particularly for hot and humid weather conditions. Motorcycles are relatively affordable and can be acquired by most households, thereby making it an equitable mode of transport.

In European cities, motorcycle mode share is often low, however rising in recent years. Amsterdam is a case in point, with about 2% of trips in 2016 by mopeds and scooters, which is a doubling compared to 2008. Moreover, such two-wheelers are involved in 16% of road crashes [19]. Although there are plans and strong public support to ban mopeds and scooters from using bicycle lanes, as of mid-2018, these are still allowed on all bike lanes and are not required to wear helmets. The users are relatively diverse, that is, they include all age and income groups.

At the same time, electric two-wheelers are gaining importance and already take a significant modal share in some countries in 2015, notably China (7%) and 2–4% in Denmark, the Netherlands and Japan [20]. China dominates E2W sales with about 30 million and a stock of about 250 million [17], followed in sales by Europe with 2.3 million, while the rest of the world accounts for about 1 million in 2015 [13].

These are predominantly e-bikes, which fall roughly in two categories: pedal-assisted bicycles (also called pedelecs) or throttle-controlled electric mopeds with the option of pedal power (often for regulatory purposes). The former are the most common in Europe, while in China and some Southeast Asian countries, e-bikes of the latter types are dominant. The speeds are up to 20–25 km/h for pedelecs and up to 45 km/h for e-mopeds, and the weight ranges from 20 to 45 kg. Electric scooters are capable of higher speeds and often fall in a different vehicle category than e-bikes.

To explore the characteristics of different E2W markets and their role in the mobility system, we examine—briefly and in broad terms—developments in China, Vietnam and the Netherlands.

In China, petrol-fuelled motorcycle bans in many cities in the early 2000s—starting with a sales ban in Shanghai in 1996 [21]—have resulted in a large and fast uptake of especially scooter-style e-bikes, with a 15–25% trip mode share in major cities [22]. They have become popular as well in cities where conventional motorcycles are still allowed (**Figure 1**). E-bikes have pedals and are classified as nonmotorised vehicles, thereby there is no requirement to wear helmet nor for licencing, and they can use bicycle lanes. E-bikes are used by a wide range of user groups, in small, medium and large cities, also as access mode for public transport. However, in general two-wheelers are used more by lower-income groups [23].

Within Southeast Asia, Vietnam has the highest share of motorcycles in the vehicle fleet [15]; however, e-bikes are not yet popular. The main users are those that do not have access to motorcycles. A key user group is students, who find these more convenient than the bicycle while it does not require a licence, registration or helmet, as is the case for motorcycles. E-bikes (**Figure 2**) are often of type that could be considered a hybrid between scooter-style and bicycle-style e-bikes. They have pedals, yet these are rarely used. There are two-wheeler lanes in some cities; however, in general they have to mix with other traffic. There are no specific policies to promote electric two-wheelers. A ban on motorcycles is planned in the city centre of Hanoi in 2030; however, whether this will cover e-bikes is not clear.

In Europe, most e-bikes are of the bicycle style. Weather is less of a barrier to cycling compared to Asian countries; however, e-bike extends the range of trips that can be covered by

bicycle, in distance and user groups. Looking at the Netherlands, e-bikes sales are increasing rapidly and in 2017 account for about one-third of bicycle sales [24]. Although in the early days of e-bikes it was mostly the elderly buying E2W, in recent years, its popularity is spreading to many other groups, including students, commuters and parents of young children. Approximately half of the km travelled is for recreational purposes [24]. E-bikes, just as mopeds, are allowed on the bicycle lanes (**Figure 3**); however, as of July 2018, speed pedelecs

**Figure 3.** Amsterdam, the Netherlands: bike lanes are used by bicycles, mopeds and electric bikes.

**Figure 2.** Hanoi, Vietnam: two-wheelers in mixed traffic, although on some roads space is allocated by mode.

Electric Two-Wheelers, Sustainable Mobility and the City http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81460 101

**3. The potential role of electric two-wheelers in sustainable urban** 

In this section, we review how E2W fits in a sustainable urban mobility system. Based on Banister [11], we focus on aspects of accessibility, as well as social and environmental

need to use the main road in urban areas.

**mobility**

sustainability.

**Figure 1.** Guilin, China: both conventional and electric motorcycles are used.

These are predominantly e-bikes, which fall roughly in two categories: pedal-assisted bicycles (also called pedelecs) or throttle-controlled electric mopeds with the option of pedal power (often for regulatory purposes). The former are the most common in Europe, while in China and some Southeast Asian countries, e-bikes of the latter types are dominant. The speeds are up to 20–25 km/h for pedelecs and up to 45 km/h for e-mopeds, and the weight ranges from 20 to 45 kg. Electric scooters are capable of higher speeds and often fall in a different vehicle category than e-bikes.

To explore the characteristics of different E2W markets and their role in the mobility system, we examine—briefly and in broad terms—developments in China, Vietnam and the

In China, petrol-fuelled motorcycle bans in many cities in the early 2000s—starting with a sales ban in Shanghai in 1996 [21]—have resulted in a large and fast uptake of especially scooter-style e-bikes, with a 15–25% trip mode share in major cities [22]. They have become popular as well in cities where conventional motorcycles are still allowed (**Figure 1**). E-bikes have pedals and are classified as nonmotorised vehicles, thereby there is no requirement to wear helmet nor for licencing, and they can use bicycle lanes. E-bikes are used by a wide range of user groups, in small, medium and large cities, also as access mode for public trans-

port. However, in general two-wheelers are used more by lower-income groups [23].

centre of Hanoi in 2030; however, whether this will cover e-bikes is not clear.

**Figure 1.** Guilin, China: both conventional and electric motorcycles are used.

Within Southeast Asia, Vietnam has the highest share of motorcycles in the vehicle fleet [15]; however, e-bikes are not yet popular. The main users are those that do not have access to motorcycles. A key user group is students, who find these more convenient than the bicycle while it does not require a licence, registration or helmet, as is the case for motorcycles. E-bikes (**Figure 2**) are often of type that could be considered a hybrid between scooter-style and bicycle-style e-bikes. They have pedals, yet these are rarely used. There are two-wheeler lanes in some cities; however, in general they have to mix with other traffic. There are no specific policies to promote electric two-wheelers. A ban on motorcycles is planned in the city

In Europe, most e-bikes are of the bicycle style. Weather is less of a barrier to cycling compared to Asian countries; however, e-bike extends the range of trips that can be covered by

Netherlands.

100 Sustainable Cities - Authenticity, Ambition and Dream

**Figure 2.** Hanoi, Vietnam: two-wheelers in mixed traffic, although on some roads space is allocated by mode.

**Figure 3.** Amsterdam, the Netherlands: bike lanes are used by bicycles, mopeds and electric bikes.

bicycle, in distance and user groups. Looking at the Netherlands, e-bikes sales are increasing rapidly and in 2017 account for about one-third of bicycle sales [24]. Although in the early days of e-bikes it was mostly the elderly buying E2W, in recent years, its popularity is spreading to many other groups, including students, commuters and parents of young children. Approximately half of the km travelled is for recreational purposes [24]. E-bikes, just as mopeds, are allowed on the bicycle lanes (**Figure 3**); however, as of July 2018, speed pedelecs need to use the main road in urban areas.
