**3. The potential role of electric two-wheelers in sustainable urban mobility**

In this section, we review how E2W fits in a sustainable urban mobility system. Based on Banister [11], we focus on aspects of accessibility, as well as social and environmental sustainability.

Most trips in cities across the globe are less than 10 km, and many are shorter than 5 km. In the Netherlands, over 50% of car trips are shorter than 7.5 km [24], and in medium-sized cities such as Rajkot and Visakhapatnam (1–2 million population) in India, nearly 80% of all trips are below 5 km [25]. Even in the United States, known for their relatively low density and sprawl, 35% of all car trips are less than 5 km and 60% are below 8 km [20]. Trips up to 5 km are generally considered to be suitable for cycling. E-bikes can extend the range of trips currently or potentially undertaken by bicycle [24, 26] by reducing barriers such as hilly terrain, weather, low speed, physical strain and bad air quality [13]. At the same time, e-bikes can replace trips by motorised modes such as motorcycle, car and public transport.

two-wheelers to be electric [17]. It should be noted that in peer-reviewed literature on climate change mitigation, however, there is limited attention for the role of electric two-wheelers.

Urban air pollution impacts are significant as well. The health impact of particulate matter on a person-km basis is lower than other modes that include petrol-powered cars, even for a coalbased electricity grid [34]. Finally, e-bike can reduce noise significantly [35], as conventional

**Table 1** presents a qualitative assessment of the sustainability aspects of electric two-wheelers discussed above, in comparison with other modes. It should be noted that this comparison is for illustration purposes only, as the modes cover different trip distances and impacts may differ considerably depending on local circumstances, particularly transport planning and environmental standards. Public transport modes are bus, tram and metro. Paratransit covers a variety of more informally organised transport such as motorcycle taxis, three-wheelers and minibuses, which are sometimes used as feeder mode for high-capacity public transport. Equity assessment is based on typical costs of travel, including ticket prices for public transport and total costs of ownership for private vehicles. In space efficiency, both parking and

reduced resource consumption) as well as energy security. Public transport first and last mile trips often involve 'active' modes such as walking or cycling. Other environmental impacts,

In the above assessment, road safety has not been taken into account. A meaningful comparison between modes is not possible as often multiple modes are involved in one road crash. In addition, among countries, road crash rates and fatalities for all modes differ by more than an order of magnitude. That said, motorcycles are often associated with safety concerns, and globally 23% of the 1.3 million road deaths were drivers or passengers of motorised two- and three-wheelers [36]. In the Netherlands, an increase in road deaths in 2017 was associated

> **Air pollution**

*Notes*: PT, public transport; NMT, nonmotorised transport; 0, lowest rating; +, low rating; ++, medium rating; +++, high

Walking <1.5 +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ Cycling 1–5 +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ E2W 1–15 ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ + Motorcycle 1–15 ++ ++ + + 0 0 PT + NMT 1–20+ ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ ++ PT + paratransit 1–20+ ++ +++ + + + + Paratransit 1–5 ++ ++ 0 + + 0 Car 1–20+ + 0 + 0 + 0

**CO2**

 **emissions/ energy use**

**Noise Physical activity**

such as pollution from battery production, are not explicitly considered here.

**Equity Space** 

**Table 1.** Environmental and social sustainability impacts of urban transport modes.

**efficiency**

emissions also imply improved energy efficiency (i.e.

Electric Two-Wheelers, Sustainable Mobility and the City http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81460 103

motorcycles and cars are key sources of urban traffic noise.

road space are considered. Lower CO2

**Mode Typical** 

rating.

**trip distance**

Mode shift impacts vary, as shown in emerging literature. In Chinese cities where petrolfuelled motorcycles are not allowed, e-bikes are displacing bus trips, yet also a significant share of trips by car/taxi and bicycle [13]. Some of the factors that impede use of bicycles are also barriers to using e-bike, for instance, heat, rain and air quality [26]. In Sweden, more than 50% of e-bike users in both urban and rural areas report replacing car trips, across different trip purposes [27]. An analysis of studies in Europe shows that the proportion of e-bike trips that replace car trips ranges from 16 to 76% [28].

Two-wheelers provide accessibility benefits over cars and public transport. Especially in dense cities in Asia and Europe, bicycles and motorcycles are more affordable, flexible, reliable and often faster than cars. In addition to reduced space require for parking, motorcycles use 3.4 times less road space than cars in Hanoi [29]. Two-wheelers are thereby much more space-efficient than other private vehicles, even when considering a slightly higher average occupancy rate for cars. In the longer term, mobility based on two wheels thus has an impact on land use and urban development and enables denser and liveable cities as opposed to 'sprawling cardominated cities' [20]. Therefore, mobility modes and transport planning are strongly related to more fundamental questions around urban development and the future of cities.

Other positive impacts of e-bikes—compared to car or motorcycle travel—for individuals and society include health due to physical activity [13] and social interaction in the public space [30], although both these effects are less strong than for bicycle travel. In the economic realm, electrification of transport is a key strategy to reduce oil consumption and improve energy supply security.

Environmental benefits are substantial as well, in particular for climate change, air quality and noise. Compared to conventional motorcycles, electric two-wheelers emit substantially less CO2 emissions per km (on a life cycle basis), even when powered by coal-based electricity [31]. Indeed, over 80% of the 29 million tonnes of CO<sup>2</sup> savings in 2017 by all types of electric vehicles globally are due to e-bikes in China [17]. For Vietnam, e-bikes are identified as the option with the second-largest CO2 abatement potential in the transport sector [32]. Kerdlap and Gheewala [33] show that in Thailand, deploying a fleet of 13.6 million electric motorcycles to replace an equivalent fleet of conventional petrol-powered motorcycles between 2015 and 2030 could reduce two-wheeler life cycle CO2 -eq emissions by approximately 42–46%. Globally, it is estimated that in 2050, 22% of urban passenger travel can be by (e) bike, compared to 6% in the base case. This results in 300 MtCO<sup>2</sup> reductions in 2050 and USD 1 trillion in savings from vehicle purchase and operation and construction and maintenance of infrastructure [20]. Moreover, meeting the Paris Agreement targets requires 70% of global two-wheelers to be electric [17]. It should be noted that in peer-reviewed literature on climate change mitigation, however, there is limited attention for the role of electric two-wheelers.

Most trips in cities across the globe are less than 10 km, and many are shorter than 5 km. In the Netherlands, over 50% of car trips are shorter than 7.5 km [24], and in medium-sized cities such as Rajkot and Visakhapatnam (1–2 million population) in India, nearly 80% of all trips are below 5 km [25]. Even in the United States, known for their relatively low density and sprawl, 35% of all car trips are less than 5 km and 60% are below 8 km [20]. Trips up to 5 km are generally considered to be suitable for cycling. E-bikes can extend the range of trips currently or potentially undertaken by bicycle [24, 26] by reducing barriers such as hilly terrain, weather, low speed, physical strain and bad air quality [13]. At the same time, e-bikes can

Mode shift impacts vary, as shown in emerging literature. In Chinese cities where petrolfuelled motorcycles are not allowed, e-bikes are displacing bus trips, yet also a significant share of trips by car/taxi and bicycle [13]. Some of the factors that impede use of bicycles are also barriers to using e-bike, for instance, heat, rain and air quality [26]. In Sweden, more than 50% of e-bike users in both urban and rural areas report replacing car trips, across different trip purposes [27]. An analysis of studies in Europe shows that the proportion of e-bike trips

Two-wheelers provide accessibility benefits over cars and public transport. Especially in dense cities in Asia and Europe, bicycles and motorcycles are more affordable, flexible, reliable and often faster than cars. In addition to reduced space require for parking, motorcycles use 3.4 times less road space than cars in Hanoi [29]. Two-wheelers are thereby much more space-efficient than other private vehicles, even when considering a slightly higher average occupancy rate for cars. In the longer term, mobility based on two wheels thus has an impact on land use and urban development and enables denser and liveable cities as opposed to 'sprawling cardominated cities' [20]. Therefore, mobility modes and transport planning are strongly related

Other positive impacts of e-bikes—compared to car or motorcycle travel—for individuals and society include health due to physical activity [13] and social interaction in the public space [30], although both these effects are less strong than for bicycle travel. In the economic realm, electrification of transport is a key strategy to reduce oil consumption and improve energy

Environmental benefits are substantial as well, in particular for climate change, air quality and noise. Compared to conventional motorcycles, electric two-wheelers emit substantially

vehicles globally are due to e-bikes in China [17]. For Vietnam, e-bikes are identified as the

and Gheewala [33] show that in Thailand, deploying a fleet of 13.6 million electric motorcycles to replace an equivalent fleet of conventional petrol-powered motorcycles between

42–46%. Globally, it is estimated that in 2050, 22% of urban passenger travel can be by (e)

1 trillion in savings from vehicle purchase and operation and construction and maintenance of infrastructure [20]. Moreover, meeting the Paris Agreement targets requires 70% of global

emissions per km (on a life cycle basis), even when powered by coal-based electricity

savings in 2017 by all types of electric


reductions in 2050 and USD

abatement potential in the transport sector [32]. Kerdlap

to more fundamental questions around urban development and the future of cities.

replace trips by motorised modes such as motorcycle, car and public transport.

that replace car trips ranges from 16 to 76% [28].

102 Sustainable Cities - Authenticity, Ambition and Dream

[31]. Indeed, over 80% of the 29 million tonnes of CO<sup>2</sup>

2015 and 2030 could reduce two-wheeler life cycle CO2

bike, compared to 6% in the base case. This results in 300 MtCO<sup>2</sup>

option with the second-largest CO2

supply security.

less CO2

Urban air pollution impacts are significant as well. The health impact of particulate matter on a person-km basis is lower than other modes that include petrol-powered cars, even for a coalbased electricity grid [34]. Finally, e-bike can reduce noise significantly [35], as conventional motorcycles and cars are key sources of urban traffic noise.

**Table 1** presents a qualitative assessment of the sustainability aspects of electric two-wheelers discussed above, in comparison with other modes. It should be noted that this comparison is for illustration purposes only, as the modes cover different trip distances and impacts may differ considerably depending on local circumstances, particularly transport planning and environmental standards. Public transport modes are bus, tram and metro. Paratransit covers a variety of more informally organised transport such as motorcycle taxis, three-wheelers and minibuses, which are sometimes used as feeder mode for high-capacity public transport. Equity assessment is based on typical costs of travel, including ticket prices for public transport and total costs of ownership for private vehicles. In space efficiency, both parking and road space are considered. Lower CO2 emissions also imply improved energy efficiency (i.e. reduced resource consumption) as well as energy security. Public transport first and last mile trips often involve 'active' modes such as walking or cycling. Other environmental impacts, such as pollution from battery production, are not explicitly considered here.

In the above assessment, road safety has not been taken into account. A meaningful comparison between modes is not possible as often multiple modes are involved in one road crash. In addition, among countries, road crash rates and fatalities for all modes differ by more than an order of magnitude. That said, motorcycles are often associated with safety concerns, and globally 23% of the 1.3 million road deaths were drivers or passengers of motorised two- and three-wheelers [36]. In the Netherlands, an increase in road deaths in 2017 was associated


*Notes*: PT, public transport; NMT, nonmotorised transport; 0, lowest rating; +, low rating; ++, medium rating; +++, high rating.

**Table 1.** Environmental and social sustainability impacts of urban transport modes.

There is a large potential in different regions to expand the use of electric two-wheelers, so what can be done do to harness this potential? Policymakers have a range of instruments that can be deployed [17]. In general, these can be organised by regulatory, economic and informative instruments [38], while for transport, often planning instruments are considered as well

Electric Two-Wheelers, Sustainable Mobility and the City http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81460 105

In the realm of regulatory instruments, the strongest policy measure is to ban motorcycles powered by fossil fuels, as implemented in Chinese cities. A phase out of conventional motorcycles and moped sales is considered in the Netherlands [40]. Similarly, a low-emission zone in a city can be designed such that conventional motorcycles will not be able to comply with the required emission standard to be allowed to circulate in the zone. Further, to improve safety for two-wheelers, speed limits for shared roads can be an effective tool, e.g. 30 km/h in urban areas where no dedicated lanes exist. At the same time, helmet use can be made compulsory for vehicles capable of travelling faster than a certain speed, for example, 25 km/h. Finally, electric two-wheelers need an appropriate legal framework in national vehicle legislation. Malaysia, for example, has adopted standards for electric mopeds with speeds in the range of 25–50 km/h, covering safety, performance and national

Planning instruments are key as well, for example, allocating dedicated road space for twowheelers, together with quality standards for existing and new road surface that improves safety [14]. E2W then co-exist with either conventional motorcycles or bicycles, depending on the desired speed range and design of the two-wheeler lanes. For example, in China, e-bikes are often allowed on bike lanes. In addition, two-wheeler mobility can be made

Low-emission zones in cities

parking management

registration of E2W

Economic instruments Incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks for purchase or

Electric bike-sharing facilities

Taxation of fuels (petrol and diesel)

Behaviour change programmes

Speed limit 30 km/h on shared roads

Vehicle standards and registration requirement

Travel demand management, including traffic calming and

Dedicated waiting boxes at intersections, optionally with shading

[39]. **Table 2** presents a brief overview, after which these options are discussed.

compliance issues [41].

**Instrument type Policy measure**

Information/communication instruments Campaigns

**Table 2.** Overview of policy options to promote E2W.

Regulatory instruments Phase-out conventional motorcycles

Planning instruments Dedicated lanes for E2W (and bicycles)

**Figure 4.** Indicative qualitative assessment of sustainability impacts and accessibility benefits of urban transport modes for trips 2–10 km, on a person-km basis. Accessibility covers travel time including parking and reliability. Sustainability aspects here include equity, road and parking space efficiency, air pollution, CO<sup>2</sup> emissions and fuel consumption, noise and physical activity (see **Table 1**). Larger ovals indicate larger spread in accessibility/sustainability benefits depending on local conditions. All vehicles except E2W are powered by internal combustion engines.

with the rising use of e-bikes among the elderly, as these are more difficult to handle than bicycles [37], with e-bikes taking 30% of total bike fatalities [24]. Unruly driving behaviour, for example, jumping red lights at intersections, is a key concern with e-bike riders as well as bicyclists and motorcycles in various countries [13].

In **Figure 4**, the sustainability impacts as included in **Table 1** are added and compared with accessibility benefits for urban trips of 2–10 km length in a dense city that has a balanced approach to transport planning for the different modes. Accessibility, or the ease of reaching opportunities, covers travel time, flexibility, reliability and ease of parking. The width of the ovals indicates how strongly accessibility depends on local conditions such as congestion, parking options, public transport service quality and urban planning. For example, in some cases a car may be as fast as a motorcycle, whereas in heavy congestion and limited parking availability, a car provides low accessibility.

A key observation from this figure is that E2Ws increase range and comfort of bicycles and improve sustainability performance of motorcycles while preserving accessibility benefits.
