Gas Chromatography - Derivatization, Sample Preparation, Application


Purpose of the study Analytical

Differentiation of apples, pears and quince fruit HS-SPME/

Differentiation of apricots (Prunus armeniaca L.), peaches (Prunus persica L.) and pumpkins (Cucurbita sp.)

Gas Chromatography in Food Authentication DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88512

Discrimination of red grape varieties of southern Italy (Aglianico, Uva di Troia, Negroamaro, Primitivo)

Classification of apple varieties (Golden Delicious, Granny Smith, Pinova and Stark Delicious)

Differentiation between grape varieties: Vitis vinifera,

Differentiation of Chinese bayberry cultivars (Myrica

Discrimination of nine passion fruits: yellow, purple, lemon, orange, pineapple, peach, melon, banana and

Differentiation between Tanzanian grown fruits: mango,

pineapple, jackfruit, baobab and tamarind

dactylifera L.) varieties from Egypt

Differentiation between date palm fruit (Phoenix

Characterization of organic oranges (Citrus sinensis L.

Differentiation of sun-dried raisins made from different

Differentiation between citrus species: mandarin, sweet orange, sour orange, papeda, pummelo, lemon, Fortunella

Differentiation of apple cultivars from geographical origin and growing conditions (organic and conventional)

Citrus juice classification (lemon, grapefruit, mandarin,

Vitis cinerea and interspecific crosses

Fruits

rubra)

tomato

Osbeck)

Swingle

grape varieties

Fruit beverages

orange, lime)

Table 4.

115

technique

GC GC

HS-SPME/GC-TOF-MS

HS-SPME/GC-MS HS-SPME/GC-MS/O

Differentiation of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) berries SPME/GC-FID — [97]

Differentiation between Passiflora fruit species HS-SPME/GC-MS PCA [100]

Discrimination of Eugenia uniflora L. biotypes HS-SPME/GC-MS PCA, HCA [108]

Differentiation of Chinese Jujube varieties HS-SPME/GC-MS HCA [114]

Detecting adulteration of blackcurrant juice GC-FID — [115] Authentication of apple and orange juice GC-FID — [116]

Assessment of premium organic orange juices authenticity HS-SPME/GC-MS PLS-DA [119]

Literature examples of authentication and adulteration detection procedures of various fruits and fruit juices.

MS

Detecting the addition of aromas to fruit beverages SPME/chiral-GC-

Chemometric technique

— [98]

PCA, PLS-DA [102]

[104] [105]

[109]

GC-FID — [99]

GC-MS PCA [101]

GC-MS HCA [103]

PCA —

HS-SPME/GC-MS PCA, PLS-DA [106]

GC-MS HCA, PCA [107]

HS-SPM/GC-MS PLS-DA [110]

GC-MS HCA [112]

HS-SPME/GC-MS PLS-DA [113]

HS-SPME/GC-MS LDA [118]

OPLS-DA

— [111]

— [117]

SPME/GC-MS PCA, HCA,

HS-SPME/GC-TOF-MS

Ref.

#### Table 3.

Literature examples of authentication and adulteration detection procedures of milk and various dairy products.

#### 2.4 Fruits and fruit-made beverages

Most of the papers dealing with fruit authenticity testing using GC are focused on determining discriminating factors that will enable discrimination of varieties of certain fruit species. These factors are mostly constituted of free and bound volatile compounds belonging to different chemical groups, namely, linear and branched esters, terpenes, alcohols and others. The paper published by Kurz et al. [97] is an exception, which is dealing with the analysis of neutral sugars of cell wall polysaccharide profiles of apricots, peaches and pumpkins using GC-FID. In some cases GC was also combined with other analytical techniques, thus enabling the wider spectra of chemical species to be included in the analysis, such as LC, in order to include nonvolatile carbohydrates, fatty acids and organic acids. The obtained data were mainly processed using multivariate data analysis techniques, such as HCA, PCA, PLS-DA, LDA and OPLS-DA. Older investigations usually do not include multivariate data analysis. Schmarr and Bernhardt [98] used image processing techniques in order to process the data obtained after comprehensive two-dimensional GC


#### Table 4.

2.4 Fruits and fruit-made beverages

Most of the papers dealing with fruit authenticity testing using GC are focused on determining discriminating factors that will enable discrimination of varieties of certain fruit species. These factors are mostly constituted of free and bound volatile compounds belonging to different chemical groups, namely, linear and branched esters, terpenes, alcohols and others. The paper published by Kurz et al. [97] is an exception, which is dealing with the analysis of neutral sugars of cell wall polysaccharide profiles of apricots, peaches and pumpkins using GC-FID. In some cases GC was also combined with other analytical techniques, thus enabling the wider spectra of chemical species to be included in the analysis, such as LC, in order to include nonvolatile carbohydrates, fatty acids and organic acids. The obtained data were mainly processed using multivariate data analysis techniques, such as HCA, PCA, PLS-DA, LDA and OPLS-DA. Older investigations usually do not include multivariate data analysis. Schmarr and Bernhardt [98] used image processing techniques in order to process the data obtained after comprehensive two-dimensional GC

Examining foreign fat origin in cheese from cow milk fat GC-FID — [94]

Quality control for Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese GC-MS PCA [96]

Literature examples of authentication and adulteration detection procedures of milk and various dairy

Purpose of the study Analytical

Gas Chromatography - Derivatization, Sample Preparation, Application

Differentiation between cow milk produced in the lowlands,

Differentiation of milk produced under conventional and

Determining the origin of milk samples: hay milk vs.

Differentiation of Grana Padano, Parmigiano-Reggiano and

Differentiation between certified organic and conventional

Differentiation of cow, goat, sheep, water buffalo, donkey, horse

Geographic origin of Emmental cheese GC-FID

Authenticity of milk fat: detection of foreign fat in milk fat (such as pork lard, bovine tallow, fish oil, peanut oil, corn oil, olive oil,

mountains and highlands of Switzerland

soy oil, sunflower oil, coconut fat)

organic management

conventional (silage) milk

Grana Trentino cheeses

probiotic fermented milks

Table 3.

products.

114

and camel milk

Dairy products

Authenticity of goat milk GC-FID — [79]

Milk

technique

GC-FID UFM-GC-FID GC-FID GC-FID GC-FID

GC-FID GC-FID GC-MS

HS-GC-FID/ MS

Chemometric technique

HR-GC-FID — [80]

— — LDA — —

— — —

GC-FID PCA [89]

GC-FID PCA, PLS-DA [90]

— PCA

GC-O PCA [93]

GC-FID — [95]

Ref.

[81] [82] [83] [84] [85]

[86] [87] [88]

[91] [92]

Literature examples of authentication and adulteration detection procedures of various fruits and fruit juices.

analysis. Table 4 chronologically lists some literature examples on authentication and adulteration procedures of various fruit species and fruit-made juices.

different time intervals. There was only one paper found in the literature that deals with differentiation of meat according to the breed origin. The PCA was successfully applied to discriminate between samples of pork, chicken, beef and mutton meat. Table 6 represents a chronological list of examples of authentication and adulteration detection procedures of various types of meat, fish and

technique

GC-FID GC-MS

technique

TOF-MS

GC-MS

HR-GC-FID HCA, CVA,

GC-MS HCA, PCA,

SPME/GC-MS PCA, HCA,

DA

LDA

SLDA

GC-MS PCA, PLS [141]

OPLS-DA

HCA, PLS-DA [140]

Halal authentication of pork meat HS/GC-MS PCA [133] Differentiation of fresh and frozen pork UFGC PCA, ANN [134]

Literature examples of authentication and adulteration detection procedures of meat products and seafood.

Chemometric technique

PCA [132]

Chemometric technique

PCA [136]

Ref.

[135]

[137]

[138]

[139]

HS-SPME/GC-MS PCA [129]

SPME/GC-MS — [130]

HS-SPME/GC-MS PCA [131]

Ref.

Purpose of the study Analytical

Differentiation between fresh and deteriorated oyster

gilthead sea bream fish (Sparus aurata)

Gas Chromatography in Food Authentication DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.88512

Differentiation between fresh and frozen-thawed cultured

Razor clam (Sinonovacula constricta Lamarck), redspot swimming crab (Portunus sanguinolentus Herbst) and prawn (Penaeus japonicus (Bate; Kuruma prawn))

Differentiation of European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) and Pacific cupped oyster (Crassostrea gigas): species, different cultivation areas, different time intervals of harvest

Purpose of the study Analytical

Determining the geographical origin of coffee samples HS-SPME/GC-

Discrimination of different teas (Camellia sinensis) HS-SPME/chiral-

Discrimination of oolong tea (Camellia sinensis) varieties HS-SPME/GC-MS PCA, HCA,

Literature examples of authentication and adulteration detection procedures of coffee and tea.

Differentiation between arabica (Coffea arabica Linn.) and robusta (Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froehner var. robusta) coffees, either in green or in roasted stage

Differentiation of Echinacea species (E. angustifolia, E.

Discrimination of two roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) flower

Discrimination of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius

L.) and Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer)

seafood.

Fish and seafood

Crassostrea gigas

freshness determination

Meat

Table 6.

Coffee

Tea

cultivars

Table 7.

117

pallida, E. purpurea)
