**2. The various experiences of eruption of several volcanoes in Indonesia**

Mount Kelud is one of the stratovolcano that became proud of the community of East Java Indonesia. An active volcano with an altitude of 1731 m above sea level is located at 7°56′00″ SL (South Latitude) and 112°18′30″ EL (East Longitude). This mountain is produced from a subduction process between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates in the south of Java Island [37]. The magnificence of Mount Kelud is increasingly visible because it is flanked by three volcanoes that are currently in a resting condition, namely Mount Wilis in the West, and in the east, there is a complex of Mount Kawi and Butak. From a distance, Mount Kelud looks like a stunning natural building with tremendous geographic and geological potential.

Geographically, Mount Kelud is located in three districts, namely Malang, Kediri and Blitar (**Figure 2**). In addition to storing a variety of beauty, Mount Kelud promises a good life for the surrounding community. The fertile volcanic soil around Kelud makes the land in this mountainous region very good for developing agriculture industry and a variety of productive local plants to support the improvement of the welfare of the surrounding community.

Based on monitoring results from the volcanology center, Mount Kelud has three eruption characteristics, namely semi-magmatic, magmatic and effusive. Semi-magmatic eruption is a phreatic eruption triggered by evaporation of crater's lake water that seeps through a crack at the bottom of the crater and exhaled to the surface. This eruption started the magmatic eruption. The magmatic eruption is the eruption followed by the exit of volcanic material

**Figure 2.** Kelud location map in East Java and the impact of its eruption in 2007 (https://volcano.si.edu/volcanoes/ region06/java/kelut/3303kel7.jpg).

from the body mountain. These eruptions are generally explosive due to increased volcanic gas and eruptive energy. The effusive eruption is an eruption accompanied by magma flow to the surface that can form a lava dome [37]. Based on **Figure 2**, the 2007 eruption had a major impact on residents in two districts, 251,622 residents in Malang Regency and 38,170 people in Blitar Regency. The total evacuation reached 116,736 people.

Integration with local wisdom is very important in an eruption disaster mitigation because cultural roles in local wisdom are proven crucial in disaster risk reduction, but in the planning of disaster risk reduction strategies is often largely be ignored [36]. Therefore, it becomes a consideration of the need to integrate local wisdom in developing a new design of volcano mitigation model based on local wisdom that is assessed the most appropriate to the condi-

Mount Kelud is one of the stratovolcano that became proud of the community of East Java Indonesia. An active volcano with an altitude of 1731 m above sea level is located at 7°56′00″ SL (South Latitude) and 112°18′30″ EL (East Longitude). This mountain is produced from a subduction process between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates in the south of Java Island [37]. The magnificence of Mount Kelud is increasingly visible because it is flanked by three volcanoes that are currently in a resting condition, namely Mount Wilis in the West, and in the east, there is a complex of Mount Kawi and Butak. From a distance, Mount Kelud looks like a stunning natural building with tremendous geographic and geological potential.

Geographically, Mount Kelud is located in three districts, namely Malang, Kediri and Blitar (**Figure 2**). In addition to storing a variety of beauty, Mount Kelud promises a good life for the surrounding community. The fertile volcanic soil around Kelud makes the land in this mountainous region very good for developing agriculture industry and a variety of productive local plants to support the improvement of the welfare of the surrounding community.

Based on monitoring results from the volcanology center, Mount Kelud has three eruption characteristics, namely semi-magmatic, magmatic and effusive. Semi-magmatic eruption is a phreatic eruption triggered by evaporation of crater's lake water that seeps through a crack at the bottom of the crater and exhaled to the surface. This eruption started the magmatic eruption. The magmatic eruption is the eruption followed by the exit of volcanic material

**Figure 2.** Kelud location map in East Java and the impact of its eruption in 2007 (https://volcano.si.edu/volcanoes/

**2. The various experiences of eruption of several volcanoes in** 

tion of Indonesian people.

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region06/java/kelut/3303kel7.jpg).

**Indonesia**

Mount Kelud has experienced seven times of eruptions during 1900–2015, that is, in 1901, 1919, 1951, 1966, 1990, 2007 and 2014 with the decreasing number of fatalities (**Figure 3**). The latest eruption of Mount Kelud occurred on 13 February 2014 with a level of an eruption (VEI) is quite powerful to be able to vibrate the Earth's ionosphere layer. Volcanic ash bursts are expected to reach a height of 17 km with 76,000 people evacuated [38]. As informed from PVMBG, the eruption characteristic of Kelud 2014 is different from the previous eruption (1990). The eruption in 2014 has a considerable impact on a number of big cities in Java.

In addition to storing geological potential and extraordinary natural charm, Mount Kelud also has the substantial potential disaster after an eruption that must be wary of. The Kelud people called cold lava flood (**Figure 4**). This disaster is no less terrible than the catastrophic eruption. The characteristics of Kelud's lava are quite unique. Basalt-andesitic lava type with relatively middle silica content makes the distribution not sufficiently extensive or only in the center of the eruption and its surroundings. However, the presence of post-eruption rain around the volcano causes the lava that mixed with other eruption material to be carried over several kilometers by the flow and destroying the area around it. Besides causing casualties, the lava floods making the breakdown of communication lines and some areas around the mountain become isolated.

One of the characteristics of Kelud eruption is very horrible and accompanied by a roar and thundering. The eruption is also accompanied by terrible lightning flashes due to the process of

**Figure 3.** Kelud eruption profile since the eighteenth century. This graph shows the relationship between the volume of crater lake water and the number of fatalities (modified from: https://geologi.co.id/2007/11/05/bagaimana-letusan-kelud/).

namely Sleman in Yogyakarta and Magelang, Boyolali and Klaten in Central Java Province (**Figure 6**), as a subduction product between plates Indo-Australia and Eurasia in Java [37]. The historical record of Merapi eruption began in 1768. From that time until now, Merapi has erupted 80 times with varying strength and periodization [37]. The eruption impact not only caused a lot of casualties and environmental damage but also deep trauma for the people

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The large eruption of Mount Merapi in the last decade occurred in 2010. This eruption is considered the largest eruption since 1870 with the death toll reaching 277 people [21]. Although the same type of stratovolcano like Mount Kelud, the eruption characteristics is different from Kelud. Merapi eruption characteristic is lower explosive with eruption index level between

than the silica content of Kelud volcano). However, it does not mean that the Merapi eruption

The volatile material of Merapi cause in every eruption always followed by a lava dome [42] that produces hot clouds or "Wedus Gembel" and greatly endangers the surrounding population. Hot clouds Merapi glide has a speed of 200 km/h with temperatures reaching 1000°C, with decreasing temperature between 23 and 27°C/km [43]. This hot cloud is a vertical pyroclastic flow explosion product [44] and flows gravitationally along the leaf and rivers and will stop when its energy is exhausted [38]. Recorded by BNPB, Merapi's biggest victim was

The ancient of Javanese believes, people believe in the relationship between Merapi, Keraton and the South Sea Ruler [45]. They believe that the Mount Merapi has supernatural powers

) content of 52–56% (greater

1 and 3. Merapi rocks are basaltic-andesitic [41] with silica (SiO<sup>2</sup>

inflicted by the hot clouds that attacked the settlements (**Figure 7**).

**Figure 6.** Merapi location map and settlement around it (wikipidia.org).

living around it [40].

is safe for people living around it.

**Figure 4.** The cold lava flood. Another terrible disaster that following of Kelud eruption (https://www.merdeka.com/ foto/peristiwa/323649/20140218200905-dahsyatnya-banjir-lahar-dingin-gunung-kelud-001-debby.html).

ionization of clouds caused the electrical charges carried by the volcanic ash into space and in contact with other charges in the atmosphere. The combination of electric flashes and a puff of ash into the sky displays a gigantic figure that is terribly believed by local people as the incarnation of Mount Kelud who is angry (**Figure 5**). This condition is used by the local government in instructing people to immediately leave from dangerous areas around Mount Kelud.

Although its eruption is assessed by geologists as a powerful eruption, it does not mean cause the occurrence of many casualties. This condition illustrates the success of disaster mitigation actions implemented by local communities and Kediri regency government. The government works collaboratively with local communities to help protect communities from the physical and psychological impact [39].

Besides Kelud, Mount Merapi (2986 m asl) is one of the legendary mountains in Java Island. Geographically, Mount Merapi lies on 7°32′30″ SL and 110°26′30″ EL, bordering four districts,

**Figure 5.** Kelud eruption in 2014. The combination of electric flash and volcanic ash resembles an angry gigantic figure.

namely Sleman in Yogyakarta and Magelang, Boyolali and Klaten in Central Java Province (**Figure 6**), as a subduction product between plates Indo-Australia and Eurasia in Java [37]. The historical record of Merapi eruption began in 1768. From that time until now, Merapi has erupted 80 times with varying strength and periodization [37]. The eruption impact not only caused a lot of casualties and environmental damage but also deep trauma for the people living around it [40].

The large eruption of Mount Merapi in the last decade occurred in 2010. This eruption is considered the largest eruption since 1870 with the death toll reaching 277 people [21]. Although the same type of stratovolcano like Mount Kelud, the eruption characteristics is different from Kelud. Merapi eruption characteristic is lower explosive with eruption index level between 1 and 3. Merapi rocks are basaltic-andesitic [41] with silica (SiO<sup>2</sup> ) content of 52–56% (greater than the silica content of Kelud volcano). However, it does not mean that the Merapi eruption is safe for people living around it.

The volatile material of Merapi cause in every eruption always followed by a lava dome [42] that produces hot clouds or "Wedus Gembel" and greatly endangers the surrounding population. Hot clouds Merapi glide has a speed of 200 km/h with temperatures reaching 1000°C, with decreasing temperature between 23 and 27°C/km [43]. This hot cloud is a vertical pyroclastic flow explosion product [44] and flows gravitationally along the leaf and rivers and will stop when its energy is exhausted [38]. Recorded by BNPB, Merapi's biggest victim was inflicted by the hot clouds that attacked the settlements (**Figure 7**).

The ancient of Javanese believes, people believe in the relationship between Merapi, Keraton and the South Sea Ruler [45]. They believe that the Mount Merapi has supernatural powers

**Figure 6.** Merapi location map and settlement around it (wikipidia.org).

ionization of clouds caused the electrical charges carried by the volcanic ash into space and in contact with other charges in the atmosphere. The combination of electric flashes and a puff of ash into the sky displays a gigantic figure that is terribly believed by local people as the incarnation of Mount Kelud who is angry (**Figure 5**). This condition is used by the local government in

**Figure 4.** The cold lava flood. Another terrible disaster that following of Kelud eruption (https://www.merdeka.com/

Although its eruption is assessed by geologists as a powerful eruption, it does not mean cause the occurrence of many casualties. This condition illustrates the success of disaster mitigation actions implemented by local communities and Kediri regency government. The government works collaboratively with local communities to help protect communities from the physical

Besides Kelud, Mount Merapi (2986 m asl) is one of the legendary mountains in Java Island. Geographically, Mount Merapi lies on 7°32′30″ SL and 110°26′30″ EL, bordering four districts,

**Figure 5.** Kelud eruption in 2014. The combination of electric flash and volcanic ash resembles an angry gigantic figure.

instructing people to immediately leave from dangerous areas around Mount Kelud.

foto/peristiwa/323649/20140218200905-dahsyatnya-banjir-lahar-dingin-gunung-kelud-001-debby.html).

and psychological impact [39].

154 Natural Hazards - Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Reduction

**3. Community behavior and the challenges of volcano eruption**

more suitable to the characteristics of the local community on the mountain slopes.

in maintaining the quality of water and soil in the surroundings of Mount Kelud.

The volcano disaster provides a meaningful example of how communities apply cultures, religions and ceremonies to communicate and remember disaster risks and mitigation strategies [45]. The understanding of that society has based only on myth and not based on scientific knowledge so that the existence of the culture is not widely understood by the public. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct an in-depth study related to the culture of the community and local knowledge as material for the development of disaster mitigation model that is

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Communities located in disaster-prone areas are suspected of having traditional intelligence in dealing with disasters formed from the introduction of the physical environment [48]. Local knowledge of the environment around volcano plays a significant role in the impact of the eruption disaster [31]. As did Sugihwaras society in predicting eruptions based on changes in natural signs. People believe that if a python is present at the villagers' means Kelud volcano will soon erupt. The python is believed by the villagers as a mountain guard manifestation that conveys the message that "celebration" will begin soon and remind people to move temporarily. The people of Kediri also abstain from cutting down Bamboo trees and Banyan at random because they are considered as sacred trees. Both trees are very important

The history of Mount Kelud and Merapi eruption, as well as several volcanoes in Indonesia, cannot be separated from the traditions of the surrounding community. A belief that the eruption of a volcano is a manifestation of the anger of the mountain guard makes the community always obedient to the tradition to perform the ceremony of honor. Scientifically, this context is very unusual, but adherence to local traditions and cultures provides a distinct advantage for people to remain secure in the face of volcanic eruption threats. One of the evidence is an offering performed by the community around Kelud mountain on 1 Suro (Javanese month). Based on the field study, most of the people of Kediri (82.61%) consider the offering ceremony to be important. One of the reasons is to obtain salvation from God Almighty from the danger of Mount Kelud eruption (65.22%). The spiritual power makes people feel secure and protected from natural disaster [21]. The culture role is very important in disaster risk reduction because through the power of culture is able to reduce the vulnerability of society to disaster [36].

This finding is highly relevant to the results of the previous study. The communities around the volcano have their own way of dealing with the threat of eruption. They have developed a system to live around the volcano through naturalization, familiarization and domestication toward all threats from volcanoes [19]. Various forms of ritual are carried out by communities around the volcano which aims to respect the volcano that seen as a source of life [49]. People consider that the volcano is a part of their daily culture and life. They have a unique culture

Local wisdom is a basic knowledge that achieved in the balance of life with nature and related to the culture in the community with its main character is that wisdom comes from experience or truth derived from life [50]. A ritual ceremony is a form of local wisdom as it connects the balance of nature with life. The main purpose of this ritual is to express gratitude to God Almighty who has given the fertility of the land in the mountain of Kelud and Merapi and

that portrays volcano as the center of the God and the symbol of greatness [33].

**Figure 7.** Hot clouds of Merapi or "Wedus Gembel" should destroy the surrounding settlements.

that can affect the lives of surrounding communities [46]. Merapi eruption always associates with the anger of the spirit of guardians; therefore, people on the slopes of Merapi are always careful in every attitude, words, and deeds and always maintain the hereditary traditions that are considered capable of muffling the anger of it.

The people around Merapi have ecological wisdom in terms of rearing, farming and living [47]. Before starting agricultural activities, the average community organizes a salvation event that aims to ask for blessing and safety in farming. To get fertile agricultural land people are advised to use a sharp machete to open the forest and use the intercropping system in farming. This can keep the soil fertility level. In the livestock system, the people of Merapi take grasses of feed animals in places that are considered not haunted. They went to the forest together and guarded each other against the disturbance of the spirits around Merapi. This is very impacting on the forest around Mount Merapi stay awake. At the time of taking grasses food in the forest which is considered haunted, the community must keep the environmental ethics. The wisdom of people in living is also owned by the people of Merapi. All buildings should not face Mount Merapi and Merbabu as it is deemed disrespectful to both mountains.

The story of Merapi eruption cannot be separated from the role of the figure of public figures who became the icon of obedience to the existence of volcano. He is Mbah Marijan, a caretaker who devotes his entire life to the Merapi volcano to become a victim of Merapi eruption malignancy in 2010. Communities around Merapi tend to be more obedient to the status information of volcanic activity from caretaker Mbah Marijan compared with information from the government. Although for sometimes the eruption experience is accurate, but not able to provide guarantees for the community because the decision taken by the caretaker is not based on proper geological studies. As a result, it is not a few casualties from the last eruption in 2010.

However, this does not mean that this experience is a bad history of the Indonesian people in facing the threat an eruption of Mount Merapi, especially for the people of Yogyakarta and its surroundings. The low level of public knowledge of the geological information presented in the technique is still difficult to understand, so there is a need for tools to communicate to the community related to volcanic activity. The contribution of Mbah Marijan with his experience in dealing with eruptions is considered very large in helping save the people from the Merapi eruption.
