Preface

**Section 2 Monitoring and Tracking of CO2 Migration 125**

Shen-En Chen and Yangguang Liu

Chapter 9 **Tracking CO2 Migration in Storage Aquifer 145**

**Field, Alabama 127**

**VI** Contents

**Sequestration 163**

Prem Bikkina and Imran Shaik

Chapter 8 **Geophysical Monitoring of CO2 Injection at Citronelle**

Luqman Kolawole Abidoye and Diganta Bhusan Das

Chapter 10 **Interfacial Tension and Contact Angle Data Relevant to Carbon**

This book is a compilation of review and research articles in the broad field of carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS). The book is divided in two sections. Three chapters in the first section provide a state-of-the-art review of various carbon sinks for CO2 sequestration such as soil and oceans. Two chapters discuss the carbon sequestration achieved by storage in kerogen nanopores and CO2 miscible flooding, respectively. The other two chapters discuss the generation of energy efficient solvents for postcombustion CO2 capture and chemical ab‐ sorption of CO2 by aqueous solution of ammonia. Chapters in the second section focus on monitoring and tracking of CO2 migration in various types of storage sites, as well as impor‐ tant physical parameters relevant to sequestration. Thus, the book covers a wide variety of topics related to CCUS. It is hoped that it can serve as a useful source of reference to both researchers and students interested in learning about various aspects of CCUS technology.

> **Ramesh K. Agarwal** Washington University St. Louis, USA

**Section 1**

**Carbon Capture and Sequestration**

**Carbon Capture and Sequestration**

**Chapter 1**

in

) in the atmosphere

back into

**Provisional chapter**

**Carbon Sequestration in Soils: The Opportunities and**

**Carbon Sequestration in Soils: The Opportunities and** 

Recently, the contributions of the soil in various ecosystems have become more prominent with the recognition of its role as a carbon sink and the potential of that in reduc-

the atmosphere. Conversely, the soil capacity to increase the concentration of CO2

the atmosphere through mineralization of organic matter is also a source of concern. Mineralization of only 10% of the soil organic carbon pool globally is believed to be equivalent to about 30 years of anthropogenic emissions. This underscores the need to preventing carbon loss (emission) from the soil resource. Globally, the soil contains a large carbon pool estimated at approximately 1500Gt of organic carbon in the first one meter of the soil profile. This is much higher than the 560 Gt of carbon (C) found in the

the soil is preventing carbon dioxide build up in the atmosphere which will confound the problem of climate change. There are a lot of strategies used in sequestering carbon in different soils, however, many challenges are being encountered in making them cost

The role of soil the ecosystem is increasingly being recognized with the realization that it

has the capacity of reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2

(through sequestration of organic carbon in the soil) and also by releasing this CO2

**Keywords:** soil carbon sequestration, climate change, carbon dioxide, ecosystem

), which is a vital greenhouse gas, from

. By holding this huge carbon stock,

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79347

**Challenges**

**Abstract**

services

**1. Introduction**

**Challenges**

Ahmed Chinade Abdullahi, Chamhuri Siwar, Mohamad Isma'il Shaharudin and Isahak Anizan

Ahmed Chinade Abdullahi, Chamhuri Siwar, Mohamad Isma'il Shaharudin and Isahak Anizan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

ing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2

biotic pool and twice more than atmospheric CO2

effective and widely acceptable.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79347

#### **Carbon Sequestration in Soils: The Opportunities and Challenges Carbon Sequestration in Soils: The Opportunities and Challenges**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79347

Ahmed Chinade Abdullahi, Chamhuri Siwar, Mohamad Isma'il Shaharudin and Isahak Anizan Ahmed Chinade Abdullahi, Chamhuri Siwar, Mohamad Isma'il Shaharudin and Isahak Anizan

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79347

#### **Abstract**

Recently, the contributions of the soil in various ecosystems have become more prominent with the recognition of its role as a carbon sink and the potential of that in reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), which is a vital greenhouse gas, from the atmosphere. Conversely, the soil capacity to increase the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere through mineralization of organic matter is also a source of concern. Mineralization of only 10% of the soil organic carbon pool globally is believed to be equivalent to about 30 years of anthropogenic emissions. This underscores the need to preventing carbon loss (emission) from the soil resource. Globally, the soil contains a large carbon pool estimated at approximately 1500Gt of organic carbon in the first one meter of the soil profile. This is much higher than the 560 Gt of carbon (C) found in the biotic pool and twice more than atmospheric CO2 . By holding this huge carbon stock, the soil is preventing carbon dioxide build up in the atmosphere which will confound the problem of climate change. There are a lot of strategies used in sequestering carbon in different soils, however, many challenges are being encountered in making them cost effective and widely acceptable.

**Keywords:** soil carbon sequestration, climate change, carbon dioxide, ecosystem services

#### **1. Introduction**

The role of soil the ecosystem is increasingly being recognized with the realization that it has the capacity of reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the atmosphere (through sequestration of organic carbon in the soil) and also by releasing this CO2 back into

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

the atmosphere (through mineralization of soil organic matter). It has been reported that mineralization of only 10% of the soil organic carbon pool globally can be equivalent to about 30 years of anthropogenic emissions [1].

level down until alternatives to fossil fuels are found. Much later in 1989, Sedjo and Solomon

The soil is reputed to contain the largest terrestrial carbon pool estimated at approximately 2344 Gt (1 gigaton = 1 billion tonnes) of organic carbon in the first 3 m, 1500 Gt in the first 1 m and 615 Gt stored in the top 20 cm of the soil profile [2–4]. By holding this huge carbon stock, the soil is preventing or delaying carbon dioxide build up in the atmosphere which will compound the problem of climate change. Considering the fact that only 9 Gt of C is added to the atmosphere yearly through anthropogenic activities from fossil fuels and ecosystem degradation [4], the soil can be counted on as an effective carbon sink that renders vital climate

mated at 150 Gt which leaves a vacuum that could be filled if the lost C can be recaptured back

The amount of carbon emitted annually into the atmosphere is estimated at 8.7 Gt C while only 3.8 Gt/year is found in the atmosphere at a given time [4]. This leaves an unaccounted balance of 4.9 Gt C/year that is believed to have been sequestered on terrestrial systems (oceans, forests, soils, etc.). The realization that the terrestrial systems (including soil) have the capacity to sequester this difference (4.9 Gt C/year) has generated interest in the potential of these systems to sequester and store carbon in long-lived pools thereby preventing its accumulation in the atmosphere [3, 4, 13–15]. Just like the way the soil sequesters and stores, organic carbon, thereby reducing the amount in the atmosphere, it can equally release carbon (through CO2

Over the last few decades, the soil has lost considerable quantity of carbon as a result of anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and agricultural activities. Managed ecosystems such as agriculture are believed to have already lost 30–55% of their original soil organic carbon stock since conversion [7]. The lost productivity of agricultural and degraded lands together offers an opportunity for recovering 50–60% of the original carbon content through adoption of carbon sequestration strategies [13]. This situation creates an opportunity for the replenishment of the lost carbon stock through adoption of deliberate strategies and policies

and converted to simple sugars and eventually returned to the soil as soil organic matter. Photosynthesis is the process where plants produces organic compounds such as carbo-

into the atmosphere and raise the concentration of carbon dioxide [12].

of carbon sequestration. This may likely reduce the amount of CO2

**3.1. Mechanisms of carbon capture and sequestration**

Soil carbon is originally derived from the CO2

hydrate by using solar energy to convert CO2

**3. Evidence that carbon is sequestered in the soil and terrestrial** 

can be offset by increasing the size of forest areas globally [11].

Carbon Sequestration in Soils: The Opportunities and Challenges

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79347

back to the atmosphere due to SOM decomposition esti-

)

5

in the atmosphere.

assimilated by plants through photosynthesis

and water into organic compounds such as

also wondered whether CO2

**ecosystems**

regulation services.

and stored in the soil [12].

Conversely, the soil also emits CO2

This underscores the need to preventing carbon loss (emission) from the soil resource. Globally, the soil contains a large carbon pool estimated at approximately 1500 Gt of organic carbon in the first 1 m of the soil profile [2–4]. This is much higher than the 560 Gt of carbon (C) found in the biotic pool [5] and twice more than atmospheric CO2 [6]. By holding this huge carbon stock, the soil is preventing carbon dioxide build up in the atmosphere which will compound the problem of climate change.

There is huge opportunity of sequestering atmospheric carbon in the soil for a long period of time because already 24% of global soils and 50% of agricultural soils are degraded globally [7]. Because most of agricultural soils are already degraded, they are estimated to have the potential of sequestering up to 1.2 billion tonnes of carbon per year [8].

Carbon sequestration in soils can be a short term solution of reducing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere until when more effective strategies are found [4].

Despite the huge carbon deposit in soil ecosystem globally, research efforts in sequestration has been primarily focused on geological and vegetation carbon capture and storage while giving less attention on the role of soil as a viable carbon sink [9].

This chapter will trace the origin of carbon sequestration idea as a potential climate mitigation measure as well as review the conceptual basis and mechanism of carbon capture and sequestration in soils. The benefits and challenges facing carbon sequestration in soils are also discussed extensively. Finally, some proven management practices and strategies used in enhancing the soil carbon stock under forest and agricultural ecosystems are outlined. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the need for the scientific community to resolve most the challenges making widespread adoption of this initiative difficult.
