**2. S-related active sites in the ORR**

The development of novel strategies for the design and synthesis of carbon-based high performance electrocatalysts is a hot topic. Therefore, efforts have been made toward the design and synthesis of extraordinary ORR catalytic carbon materials with different morphologies and single or multiple active sites from diverse sources. S-related active sites have been extensively investigated due to their excellent performance in ORR. S atom mono-doping can induce structural defects in the carbon matrix. The resulting charge dislocation can improve the oxygen adsorption. Furthermore, protonation of S is not as severe as that of N [20]. More importantly, dual doping of N and S or multiple doping of N, S, and M [21] can dramatically enhance ORR activity due to the synergistic effects.

### **2.1. M-N-S-based active sites**

to developing low cost, non-precious-metal, and metal-free catalysts with improved electro-

Excellent electrocatalysts for ORR should possess a high specific surface area, finely tuned pore structure, and good electron conductivity. The former two facilitate easy accessibility to the active sites and ion diffusion, and the latter is beneficial for electron transfer. Much attention has been focused on the carbonaceous materials due to their remarkable advantages, such as low cost, facile preparation strategy, and high conductivity. For constructing ORR catalysts with promising electrocatalytic activity, single atom doping or co-doping of two or multiple heteroatoms are essential. Metal/nitrogen/carbon (M/N/C) catalysts have been regarded as the most promising alternative for precious metal catalysts. For example, Fe species not only facilitate the formation of catalytically active N-C sites, but Fe atoms also contribute to the graphitization of carbon. More importantly, Fe atoms and related nanoparticles are generally suggested as the active site of ORR catalysts. Recently, the introduction of nonmetal heteroatoms such as N, P, S, or B into carbon materials is generally effective in enhancing ORR activities of catalysts. In N-doped carbon, the N atom with higher electronegativity (3.04) than that of carbon (2.55) leads to more charged adjacent C atoms. With respect to S, the electronegativity of S (2.58) is similar to that of carbon; however, S can easily change the band gap of carbon due to its two lone pair electrons [2]. P with an electronegativity of 2.19 and B with an electronegativity of 2.04 can also induce imbalanced charge distribution in carbon materials, thus forming positively polarized C-P and C-B more active sites to ORR [10, 11]. Furthermore, N/B, N/P, N/S, and N/S/P co-doped carbons also show excellent catalytic activity due to their synergistic effects on spin or charge density of carbon matrix. Notably, designing a carbon matrix with different morphologies combined with hierarchical porous structures, such as micro-, meso-, and macroporosity, can further

Recently, the S atom has attracted particular interest and especially its high synergetic effect with N dopants and metal dopants [12–19]. In this chapter, we briefly summarize the S-related species as active sites in the ORR, such as S-M/N/C, metal chalcogenides, N/S, and N/S/P. We then discuss the S-containing electrocatalysts including their carbon sources, heteroatom

The development of novel strategies for the design and synthesis of carbon-based high performance electrocatalysts is a hot topic. Therefore, efforts have been made toward the design and synthesis of extraordinary ORR catalytic carbon materials with different morphologies and single or multiple active sites from diverse sources. S-related active sites have been extensively investigated due to their excellent performance in ORR. S atom mono-doping can induce structural defects in the carbon matrix. The resulting charge dislocation can improve the oxygen adsorption. Furthermore, protonation of S is not as severe as that of N [20]. More importantly, dual doping of N and S or multiple doping of N, S, and M [21] can dramatically

dopants, and preparation methods as well as the nanostructure of the supports.

catalytic efficiency [6–9].

82 Chalcogen Chemistry

optimize ORR activity.

**2. S-related active sites in the ORR**

enhance ORR activity due to the synergistic effects.

Wu et al. prepared Fe, N, and S decorated hierarchical carbon layers (S, N-Fe/N/C-CNT) from pyrolysis of 2,2-bipyridine and Fe(SCN)<sup>3</sup> -coated CNTs [22]. Adding S salts not only contributed to the formation of atomically dispersed Fe-N<sup>x</sup> species, but also improved the surface area of the carbon matrix. The half-wave potential (E1/2) of the S,N-Fe/N/C-CNT catalyst is about 0.85 V, which is higher than that of commercial Pt/C (0.82 V). The catalyst also exhibited superior durability in alkaline medium. Theoretical calculations predicted that atomically dispersed Fe-N<sup>x</sup> species function as highly active sites, while co-doping of N and S improved the electrical conductivity. Furthermore, Wan et al. fabricated a sandwich-like graphene/carbon hybrid from graphene oxide (GO) and nontoxic starch (**Figure 1**) [23]. Graphene/carbon nanosheets decorated by N, S, and Fe (Fe, S/NGC) were obtained via treatment with FeCl<sup>3</sup> and KSCN. Fe,S/NGC showed outstanding ORR performance in alkaline medium (E1/2 of 0.83 V vs. RHE, surpassing E1/2 of NGC (0.76 V) and the Pt/C catalyst (0.81 V)), due to the simultaneous introduction of Fe and S. The Fe<sup>3</sup> N and S were considered major active centers in this hybrid. Furthermore, Fe,S/NGC also displayed a high ORR activity in the acidic solution. In addition, an S and N dual-doped Fe-N-S electrocatalyst (Fe-M-LA/C) was obtained via pyrolysis of the mixture of melamine, lipoic acid, FeCl<sup>3</sup> , and carbon black [24]. FeS and Fe<sup>3</sup> C formed in the Fe-M-LA/C. It has been suggested that Fe2+ has high catalytic activity in ORR and that Fe<sup>3</sup> C is the active site for the ORR. Combined with the N and S-doping, Fe-M-LA/C showed promising ORR activity. Interestingly, sewage sludge itself can be used as "all-inone" precursor for ORR catalysts [25]. The innate N, Fe, and S compounds in the sewage sludge function as N, Fe, and S dopants. The N, Fe, and S self-doped nanoporous carbon material exhibited favorable electrocatalytic activity in both alkaline and acidic environments. The nanostructure of the carbon matrix also played an important role in ORR. Wan et al. synthesized Fe/N/S-doped carbon from glucose, thiourea, and iron nitrate based on a dualtemplate method. Multiple active sites such as graphitic-N, pyridinic-N, thiophene-S, FeN<sup>x</sup> ,

**Figure 1.** (a) The raw materials of synthesis of NGC nanosheets used as the precursor of Fe,S/NGC-900. (b) Mixed aqueous solution of FeCl<sup>3</sup> and KSCN (above) and NGC nanosheets prepared by hydrothermal reaction (below). (c) The as-obtained catalyst (above) and illustration of nitrogen and sulfur atoms in carbon skeleton (below) of Fe,S/NGC-900.

and encapsulated iron nanoparticles combined with hierarchical porous structures contributed to the excellent ORR performance [2].

Bimetal-based N and S doped catalysts have also been reported. Li et al. synthesized PdW alloy nanoparticles decorated S-doped graphene via a microwave irradiation method [26]. S-doping contributed to the formation of small particles and the uniform distribution of alloy particles. The as-prepared catalyst was highly active for ORR due to the specific electronic structure of the alloy. CoFe<sup>2</sup> O4 nanoparticles decorated rGO designed by Yang et al. demonstrated high ORR activity due to the existence of defects resulting from the doping of N and S and the covalent coupling between the CoFe<sup>2</sup> O4 and rGO matrix [27]. Moreover, Ren et al. synthesized PdNi decorated N and S co-doped three-dimensional ordered carbon derived from acrylonitrile telomere (C, N, and S sources) using silica as template [28]. Due to the codoping of N and S, the strong electronic interaction between Pd and Ni, and three-dimensional honeycomb-ordered structure, the electrocatalyst exhibited superior performance compared to commercial Pd/C in alkaline solution.

and S in the carbon nanosheets, Co9

**Figure 3.** Schematic of the formation of Co9

Royal Society of Chemistry.

thus contributing to the positive shifts of Eonset. MoS<sup>2</sup>

for ORR, due to their strong interaction between MoS<sup>2</sup>

were investigated in recent years. Li et al. prepared NiCo<sup>2</sup>

nanosheets were prepared using MoS<sup>2</sup>

hybrid for application in ORR [38].

treatment with ammonia gas (NH<sup>3</sup>

**2.3. N-, S-, B-, and P-based active sites**

S8

S8

co-doped reduced GO aerogel showing highly efficient activity for ORR [33].

and high specific surface area. Recently, it has been reported that Ni<sup>3</sup>

Aniline and pyrrole function as carbon source and N dopant and Na<sup>2</sup>

Moreover, Liao et al. prepared S co-doped graphene nanoholes with cobalt sulfide hollow nanospheres decorated in (Co1−xS/N-S-G) using GO (graphene oxide), phen, and S [32]. The catalyst presented high ORR catalytic activity with an E1/2 of 30 mV, which was more positive than that of a commercial Pt/C catalyst. Similarly, Zhang et al. prepared CoS decorated N, S

There are other metal sulfides as active sites in ORR. Suh et al. prepared nano-CuS@Cu-BTC composites using Cu-MOF as a sacrificial template and thioacetamide as sulfide source [34]. With the increasing amount of nano-CuS in the composite, electrical conductivity increased,

polymers as N and C sources [35]. The novel electrocatalysts showed enhanced performance

are also potential catalyst for ORR. Furthermore, metallic double sulfides as an ORR catalyst

Recently, metal-free catalysts have received much attention, and intensive research efforts have been made. For example, Sun et al. synthesized N,S-co-doped nanocarbon polyhedral morphology using a metal organic framework (MOF) as precursor followed by thermal

catalyst showed improved electrocatalytic efficiency, comparable to that of the Pt/C catalyst. Mu et al. synthesized N and S dual-doped 3D porous graphene from waste biomass and GO (**Figure 5**) [40]. The resultant catalyst showed high ORR performance and stability comparable to commercial Pt/C in both alkaline and acidic media due to their unique porous structure and synergistic effects of N and S doping. Furthermore, Wang et al. prepared N and S co-doped 3D hollow structured carbon spheres based on a soft template method [41].

obtained hollow carbon spheres with uniform size, mesoporous structure, and high number of active sites exhibited high ORR activity comparable to that of Pt/C. In contrast, Liao et al.

/N,S-CNS showed high catalytic activity and stability.

/N,S-CNS. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [31]. Copyright 2017,

The Role of Sulfur-Related Species in Oxygen Reduction Reactions

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78647

85

nanosheets as templates and conjugated microporous

) and further co-doping of S (**Figure 4**) [39]. The obtained

S4


S2

and carbon layer, high conductivity,

and N, S-doped graphene aerogel

[36] and WS3−x [37]

S serve as S dopant. The

### **2.2. Metal chalcogenide-based active sites**

Wang et al. prepared a raisin bread-like N and S co-doped mesoporous graphitic carbon spheres with Fe1−xS nanocrystals embedded in (Fe1−xS/N, S-MGCS) (**Figure 2**) [29]. The Fe1−xS/N, S-MGCS catalyst was obtained via pyrolysis of Fe2+-Polydopamine (PDA), followed by a vulcanization process, in which Fe<sup>x</sup> Cy was transformed into Fe1−xS. This catalyst showed excellent ORR performance in both alkaline medium and acidic medium. Notably, the corresponding Eonset and E1/2 of Fe1−xS/N and S-MGCS were 0.97 and 0.91 V, respectively. The RHE was superior to that of the commercial Pt/C catalyst with an Eonset of 0.93 V and an E1/2 of 0.87 V. Similarly, Wang et al. prepared a S-Fe/N/C electrocatalyst by pyrolyzing thiourea and iron acetate [30]. Five types of nanoparticles were detected: Fe, FeS, FeN, FeC, and Fe<sup>3</sup> O4 . The catalyst showed higher ORR performance compared to Fe/N/C both in alkaline and acidic media. Apparently, more S doping contributed to the higher catalytic performance.

Cobalt chalcogenides as active sites have also attracted significant attention. For example, Li et al. successfully anchored Co9 S8 nanoparticles on N and S dual doped carbon nanosheets (Co9 S8 /N,S-CNS) via facile pyrolysis of CoCl<sup>2</sup> , citric acid, and thiourea as carbon source and cubic NaCl crystals were used as template (**Figure 3**) [31]. Due to the highly dispersed nanoparticle and the synergistic catalytic effect between Co<sup>9</sup> S8 nanoparticles and the doped N

**Figure 2.** Schematic graph of the formation process from DA to Fe1−xS/N, S-MGCS. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [29]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

**Figure 3.** Schematic of the formation of Co9 S8 /N,S-CNS. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [31]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

and S in the carbon nanosheets, Co9 S8 /N,S-CNS showed high catalytic activity and stability. Moreover, Liao et al. prepared S co-doped graphene nanoholes with cobalt sulfide hollow nanospheres decorated in (Co1−xS/N-S-G) using GO (graphene oxide), phen, and S [32]. The catalyst presented high ORR catalytic activity with an E1/2 of 30 mV, which was more positive than that of a commercial Pt/C catalyst. Similarly, Zhang et al. prepared CoS decorated N, S co-doped reduced GO aerogel showing highly efficient activity for ORR [33].

There are other metal sulfides as active sites in ORR. Suh et al. prepared nano-CuS@Cu-BTC composites using Cu-MOF as a sacrificial template and thioacetamide as sulfide source [34]. With the increasing amount of nano-CuS in the composite, electrical conductivity increased, thus contributing to the positive shifts of Eonset. MoS<sup>2</sup> -embedded nitrogen-doped porous carbon nanosheets were prepared using MoS<sup>2</sup> nanosheets as templates and conjugated microporous polymers as N and C sources [35]. The novel electrocatalysts showed enhanced performance for ORR, due to their strong interaction between MoS<sup>2</sup> and carbon layer, high conductivity, and high specific surface area. Recently, it has been reported that Ni<sup>3</sup> S2 [36] and WS3−x [37] are also potential catalyst for ORR. Furthermore, metallic double sulfides as an ORR catalyst were investigated in recent years. Li et al. prepared NiCo<sup>2</sup> S4 and N, S-doped graphene aerogel hybrid for application in ORR [38].

### **2.3. N-, S-, B-, and P-based active sites**

and encapsulated iron nanoparticles combined with hierarchical porous structures contrib-

Bimetal-based N and S doped catalysts have also been reported. Li et al. synthesized PdW alloy nanoparticles decorated S-doped graphene via a microwave irradiation method [26]. S-doping contributed to the formation of small particles and the uniform distribution of alloy particles. The as-prepared catalyst was highly active for ORR due to the specific electronic

strated high ORR activity due to the existence of defects resulting from the doping of N and

synthesized PdNi decorated N and S co-doped three-dimensional ordered carbon derived from acrylonitrile telomere (C, N, and S sources) using silica as template [28]. Due to the codoping of N and S, the strong electronic interaction between Pd and Ni, and three-dimensional honeycomb-ordered structure, the electrocatalyst exhibited superior performance compared

Wang et al. prepared a raisin bread-like N and S co-doped mesoporous graphitic carbon spheres with Fe1−xS nanocrystals embedded in (Fe1−xS/N, S-MGCS) (**Figure 2**) [29]. The Fe1−xS/N, S-MGCS catalyst was obtained via pyrolysis of Fe2+-Polydopamine (PDA), followed by a vul-

ORR performance in both alkaline medium and acidic medium. Notably, the corresponding Eonset and E1/2 of Fe1−xS/N and S-MGCS were 0.97 and 0.91 V, respectively. The RHE was superior to that of the commercial Pt/C catalyst with an Eonset of 0.93 V and an E1/2 of 0.87 V. Similarly, Wang et al. prepared a S-Fe/N/C electrocatalyst by pyrolyzing thiourea and iron acetate [30].

higher ORR performance compared to Fe/N/C both in alkaline and acidic media. Apparently,

Cobalt chalcogenides as active sites have also attracted significant attention. For example, Li

and cubic NaCl crystals were used as template (**Figure 3**) [31]. Due to the highly dispersed

**Figure 2.** Schematic graph of the formation process from DA to Fe1−xS/N, S-MGCS. Reproduced with permission from

O4

nanoparticles decorated rGO designed by Yang et al. demon-

was transformed into Fe1−xS. This catalyst showed excellent

nanoparticles on N and S dual doped carbon nanosheets

S8

O4

, citric acid, and thiourea as carbon source

nanoparticles and the doped N

. The catalyst showed

and rGO matrix [27]. Moreover, Ren et al.

uted to the excellent ORR performance [2].

O4

Cy

Five types of nanoparticles were detected: Fe, FeS, FeN, FeC, and Fe<sup>3</sup>

more S doping contributed to the higher catalytic performance.

S8

/N,S-CNS) via facile pyrolysis of CoCl<sup>2</sup>

nanoparticle and the synergistic catalytic effect between Co<sup>9</sup>

S and the covalent coupling between the CoFe<sup>2</sup>

to commercial Pd/C in alkaline solution.

canization process, in which Fe<sup>x</sup>

et al. successfully anchored Co9

Ref. [29]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

(Co9 S8

**2.2. Metal chalcogenide-based active sites**

structure of the alloy. CoFe<sup>2</sup>

84 Chalcogen Chemistry

Recently, metal-free catalysts have received much attention, and intensive research efforts have been made. For example, Sun et al. synthesized N,S-co-doped nanocarbon polyhedral morphology using a metal organic framework (MOF) as precursor followed by thermal treatment with ammonia gas (NH<sup>3</sup> ) and further co-doping of S (**Figure 4**) [39]. The obtained catalyst showed improved electrocatalytic efficiency, comparable to that of the Pt/C catalyst.

Mu et al. synthesized N and S dual-doped 3D porous graphene from waste biomass and GO (**Figure 5**) [40]. The resultant catalyst showed high ORR performance and stability comparable to commercial Pt/C in both alkaline and acidic media due to their unique porous structure and synergistic effects of N and S doping. Furthermore, Wang et al. prepared N and S co-doped 3D hollow structured carbon spheres based on a soft template method [41]. Aniline and pyrrole function as carbon source and N dopant and Na<sup>2</sup> S serve as S dopant. The obtained hollow carbon spheres with uniform size, mesoporous structure, and high number of active sites exhibited high ORR activity comparable to that of Pt/C. In contrast, Liao et al.

prepared N and S co-doped hollow carbon nanospheres from polyacrylonitrile and S via a hard template method [42]. They reported that S-doping facilitated the formation of pyridinic N, which is more active than other N species in ORR. The catalyst exhibits excellent ORR

Dai et al. reported the development of N, S co-doped graphitic sheets from melamine (as

template) [43]. The unique hierarchical porous structure renders active sites easily accessible and facilitates electron and mass transfer. Therefore, this catalyst was not only effective in ORR, but also demonstrated excellent activities in OER/HER. In addition, Zhi et al. reported

Song et al. prepared S-N dual doped ordered mesoporous carbon based on a hard template method [45]. In their work, polythiophene (PTh) and polypyrrole (PPy) were used as precursors and ordered mesoporous silica (SBA-15) was selected as template. Based on this method, N and S contents can be easily adjusted. Furthermore, the mesoscopic morphology provided more accessible active sites. Therefore, this catalyst showed excellent ORR performance.

Recently, P/S binary-doped carbon materials have also been reported. P, with higher electrondonating ability, heavily affects neighboring carbon atoms, thus tending to induce more active sites than N. For instance, Cao et al. prepared P/S co-doped porous carbon derived from resorcinol, furaldehyde, and phosphorus pentasulfide. Due to the synergetic merits of P

In fact, the mechanism of S-related active sites in ORR is still debated. Suib et al. prepared S-doped carbon nanotube-graphene nanolobes via sequential bidoping strategy, in which the nature of S functionalization can be finely tuned [47]. First, thiourea functioned as the S source. To further stabilize and enhance the content of S, the second doping of benzyl disulfide was introduced. Different doping types of S were detected, such as C-S, C-S-C, and -SO<sup>x</sup>

The S-doped CNT showed high catalytic activity and good stability for ORR. Furthermore, Guo et al. studied the effect of Fe/N/C and C-S-C active sites in alkaline and acidic media [48]. It is worth noting that no Fe-S bond formed in the catalyst. They found that no synergistic effects between Fe/N/C and C-S-C were observed in alkaline solution as the two active centers are separated. In contrast, synergistic effects between Fe/N/C and C-S-C sites remarkably enhanced ORR activity in acidic media because the C-S-C active sites facilitated the 4e- ORR

Furthermore, S can function as platinum nanowire catalyst anchoring sites. Chen et al. studied the influence of S content on the ORR activity of S-doped graphene supported platinum nanowires (PtNW/SGs) [49]. S doping increased the band gap, while the electrical conductivity decreased. PtNW/SGs with 1.40 at% S showed the best ORR performance. Zhi et al.

SO4

(as S dopant and template), and KCl (as

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http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78647

N4

, indicating the atomic modification over the C<sup>3</sup>

can remarkably enhance ORR

serve as N source. XPS

N4 . 87


N4

performance with high stability and selectivity.

carbon precursor and nitrogen dopant), Ni<sup>2</sup>

analysis showed the formation of C3

**2.4. Mechanism**

pathway.

that atomic S doping in mesoporous carbon-supported C3

activity [44]. In this work, thiourea was selected as S dopant and C<sup>3</sup>

N4−xSx

and S, the onset potential positively shifted for ORR in alkaline media [46].

**Figure 4.** Schematic illustration of the fabrication of the N,S-co-doped nanocarbon as the electrocatalyst toward ORR. The ZIF-8 precursor and thiourea are used as C/N and S precursors, respectively. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [39]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

**Figure 5.** Schematic illustration of the formation of NSG: (stage 1) homogeneous mixture of graphene oxide and horn, (stage 2) disintegration/release of cysteine moieties and coverage of GO surface leading to reaction of functional groups, eviction of gaseous species, and the formation of S and N containing moieties (e.g., H<sup>2</sup> S, NH<sup>3</sup> , etc.), and (stage 3) doping of N and S into the graphene carbon network. Reproduced with permission from Ref. 40. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.

prepared N and S co-doped hollow carbon nanospheres from polyacrylonitrile and S via a hard template method [42]. They reported that S-doping facilitated the formation of pyridinic N, which is more active than other N species in ORR. The catalyst exhibits excellent ORR performance with high stability and selectivity.

Dai et al. reported the development of N, S co-doped graphitic sheets from melamine (as carbon precursor and nitrogen dopant), Ni<sup>2</sup> SO4 (as S dopant and template), and KCl (as template) [43]. The unique hierarchical porous structure renders active sites easily accessible and facilitates electron and mass transfer. Therefore, this catalyst was not only effective in ORR, but also demonstrated excellent activities in OER/HER. In addition, Zhi et al. reported that atomic S doping in mesoporous carbon-supported C3 N4 can remarkably enhance ORR activity [44]. In this work, thiourea was selected as S dopant and C<sup>3</sup> N4 serve as N source. XPS analysis showed the formation of C3 N4−xSx , indicating the atomic modification over the C<sup>3</sup> N4 .

Song et al. prepared S-N dual doped ordered mesoporous carbon based on a hard template method [45]. In their work, polythiophene (PTh) and polypyrrole (PPy) were used as precursors and ordered mesoporous silica (SBA-15) was selected as template. Based on this method, N and S contents can be easily adjusted. Furthermore, the mesoscopic morphology provided more accessible active sites. Therefore, this catalyst showed excellent ORR performance.

Recently, P/S binary-doped carbon materials have also been reported. P, with higher electrondonating ability, heavily affects neighboring carbon atoms, thus tending to induce more active sites than N. For instance, Cao et al. prepared P/S co-doped porous carbon derived from resorcinol, furaldehyde, and phosphorus pentasulfide. Due to the synergetic merits of P and S, the onset potential positively shifted for ORR in alkaline media [46].
