**3. School culture**

#### **3.1. The concept of school culture and its features**

Various and numerous definitions have been made regarding organizational culture. According to Schwartz and Davis [56], organizational culture is the whole of beliefs and expectations shared by members of the organization and the norms that shape the behaviors of groups and individuals in the organization. Some of the scientists who are interested in the concept treat the organization's culture as a set of widely shared beliefs about how people behave at work and the values that make it possible to distinguish which goals and tasks are important [57].

According to another point of view in the literature, organizational culture is the common beliefs and values that develop over time in an organization [58]. Hellriegel and Slocum [59] describe an organization's culture as a complicated structure that is composed of beliefs, ideas, expectations, attitudes, behaviors and values shared by members of the organization. Organizations are social systems. The most important elements of this social system are the people. These people, who make organizations dynamic, come to life with their knowledge, manners and beliefs, or briefly "culture," which they surround. Organizations are made up of people with different cultures. Social gaze, beliefs, rewards or punishment expectations, flexibility and fatalistic beliefs, that is, social expectations, which are shaped in the culture in which humans are located, cause them to look at the same phenomenon in the same context [60]. These people have come together with a number of professional criteria, and as a natural consequence of being a group, they have formed a system of beliefs and values that are relatively different from other organizations but within themselves. This system is "organization culture." School culture can change in time in order to obtain higher student achievement as the profiles enrolling at the school vary from one year to the other and a school should adapt itself to them [61].

In order to be able to compete in a constantly changing environment, the organization must adapt itself to this change, continually learn and practice what they learn [62]. Every organization should demonstrate value-based management. In other words, according to the development of events, there should be a set of values and decisions in the face of developing situations that do not take daily decisions [63].

#### **3.2. Formation of school culture**

Even though the definition of culture is difficult to measure and it causes some concerns, organizational culture offers a variety of benefits to its leader and organizational members [64, 65]. Organizational culture contributes to the organizational leadership in working more effectively and harmoniously with the organizational leader, as well as by providing regular procedures for the strategy and methods of putting the work into practice. Organizational culture leads to the emergence of new leaders who are identical in qualities to individuals who work within it and of its members. It provides a solid relationship between the individuals working in organizational culture and benefits such as contributing to the formation of cooperative working teams.

In their research, Kowalski et al. [66] stated that one of the most important elements of school cultures is sharing. According to Robbins [67], management refers to one of the functions of communication as providing sharing. As for Senge [68], communication manager has been included in the factors that make a leader. In the organizations, it is possible to produce, share, interpret and understand the meaning of organizational communication in the processes of management functions such as effective coordination of managers [69, 70]. In this context, it can be said that there is an important share of communication in the formation of organizational culture, which is expressed as organizational integration and assumptions leading to external compatibility [65, 67]. The creation and strengthening of school culture are seen as a fundamental necessity for supporting and sustaining success in school [71].

Finnan [72] notes that school culture is not a static element but is constantly being built and shaped through reflection and interactions between individuals.

### **3.3. Elements of school culture**

Teachers believe that coaches are not useful if they spent more time on management and administrative duties than their needs [51]. Based on the results of studies, it was noted that the quality of teachers' instructional practices for class discussions improved [53] and also

Various and numerous definitions have been made regarding organizational culture. According to Schwartz and Davis [56], organizational culture is the whole of beliefs and expectations shared by members of the organization and the norms that shape the behaviors of groups and individuals in the organization. Some of the scientists who are interested in the concept treat the organization's culture as a set of widely shared beliefs about how people behave at work and the values that make it possible to distinguish which goals and tasks are

According to another point of view in the literature, organizational culture is the common beliefs and values that develop over time in an organization [58]. Hellriegel and Slocum [59] describe an organization's culture as a complicated structure that is composed of beliefs, ideas, expectations, attitudes, behaviors and values shared by members of the organization. Organizations are social systems. The most important elements of this social system are the people. These people, who make organizations dynamic, come to life with their knowledge, manners and beliefs, or briefly "culture," which they surround. Organizations are made up of people with different cultures. Social gaze, beliefs, rewards or punishment expectations, flexibility and fatalistic beliefs, that is, social expectations, which are shaped in the culture in which humans are located, cause them to look at the same phenomenon in the same context [60]. These people have come together with a number of professional criteria, and as a natural consequence of being a group, they have formed a system of beliefs and values that are relatively different from other organizations but within themselves. This system is "organization culture." School culture can change in time in order to obtain higher student achievement as the profiles enrolling at the school vary from one year to the other and a school should adapt itself to them [61]. In order to be able to compete in a constantly changing environment, the organization must adapt itself to this change, continually learn and practice what they learn [62]. Every organization should demonstrate value-based management. In other words, according to the development of events, there should be a set of values and decisions in the face of developing

Even though the definition of culture is difficult to measure and it causes some concerns, organizational culture offers a variety of benefits to its leader and organizational members [64, 65]. Organizational culture contributes to the organizational leadership in working more effectively

student achievement increased with coaching program [33, 54, 55].

**3.1. The concept of school culture and its features**

situations that do not take daily decisions [63].

**3.2. Formation of school culture**

**3. School culture**

10 Leadership

important [57].

School culture gives a sense of formal identity and draws a way for organizational processes through organizations, legends, rituals, meanings, values and norms [73].


**g. Symbols:** Symbols are symbols and words in organizational culture. These include special meanings. Essential values forming the basis of the organization are expressed by symbols [74].

direct their children in a better way [82]. A strong connection established between school and

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A distinct result of a strong culture is low employee turnover rate. In a strong culture, there is a high level of agreement among members on what the organization represents. Such a unity of purpose stimulates the senses of organizational belonging of employees, as a result of which the tendencies of employees to leave the organization are reduced [80]. Integration is the psychological commitment between an individual and the organization. This situation involves not only engagement of the individual to work and commitment to the organization but also his/her beliefs about the dominant values of the organization. Members of an organization can integrate with the group and the organization as well as its objectives through some shared cultural elements. For this reason, it is essential that the manager imposes an awareness of "us" in the organization so that employees benefit organizational integration and sense of belonging. In addition, in order to create a sense of belonging and community at the school, a stable group based on long-term togetherness is needed above all. Long-term togetherness of the staff is essential in terms of integration. Frequent turnover of managers or employees has a negative impact on the development of integration. On the other hand, the feeling of being a community is related to the sense of being a community that is related to all members of the school community accepting themselves as a part of the school and integrat-

As an organization, school is an organization which adds the behavior needed to reach preset educational objectives in a planned manner and within a certain period. It is a system operating under public surveillance where transfer of knowledge and skills is realized in a

• The most important and explicit feature of a school is that the raw material that it processes

• School is a special environment. A controlled environment is created by developing pro-

• It is an organization which teaches cultural values to students and creates change in the

• School has some values. The task of a school is to reconcile and balance these values.

grams that will ensure the behavioral changes desired to occur in the student.

• School is an organization which is affected by and affects the environment.

• School is the leading organization which ensures cultural change.

environment will have a positive impact on school culture.

**4. Integration and sense of belonging**

ing with the school (Alavi et al., [83]).

programmed and systematic manner [78].

cultural structure of the society.

• School has a unique culture and personality.

• School is a bureaucratic organization [84].

Features of a school organization can be listed as follows:

is human who comes from and goes back to society.

**3.5. Features of school culture**

#### **3.4. Dimensions of school culture**

According to some researchers, several and various dimensions of school culture are determined. These dimensions are as follows:

#### **1. Democratic management and participation**

A democratic school management includes determination of representatives through elections, a transparent management philosophy, providing a free working environment to the employees, entrenching a system which allows employees and students to express themselves freely and creating a culture which adopts equality as a common value, etc., [78]. Some studies showed that the subordinates of participatory leaders have higher satisfaction than the subordinates of some rampant leader types and that an increase in participation and cooperation level also increases the level of identification of employees with their organizations; other studies indicated that there is a meaningful relation between increase in morals and efficiency and more participation and that when workers determine production targets themselves, they determined a target which is above normal levels and that they surpassed this target in a short period of time (Roethlisberger and Bavelas cited in Davis [77]), (cited in [79]). As a result, it can be thought that success is inevitable in organizations which have a democratic school culture.

#### **2. Cooperation, support and trust**

Cooperation can be defined in general terms as "a working partnership or business partnership created by individuals with same purposes and interests." Support is the degree of help and sincerity provided by managers to their subordinates [80]. In his definition of school culture, Senge underlines the need to support the process between attitudes, values and habits. The existence of a supported professional community prevents teachers from giving in to exhaustion and empowers and motivates them (cited in [81]). There are stronger relations between education employees who enjoy an environment of trust, as a result of which they can display common stance in the face of problems and everybody can make contribution to the solution. If an environment of trust cannot be created, the relations between employees are damaged and sharing and cooperation are reduced.

#### **3. The relation between school and environment**

The most important and explicit feature of school culture is that it receives the raw material (student) that it processes from the society, subjects them to the necessary education process and gives back to the society. It is also distinguished form other organizations in that all formal and informal organizations around the school direct or influence it. The development of a child at school must be in the same direction with the sensitiveness that the family shows to education. In this sense, two advantages of cooperation between family and school can be mentioned: first, the interest shown by the family to school and student provides motivation. Second, families that are familiar to the structure, values and standards of the school can direct their children in a better way [82]. A strong connection established between school and environment will have a positive impact on school culture.

#### **4. Integration and sense of belonging**

**g. Symbols:** Symbols are symbols and words in organizational culture. These include special meanings. Essential values forming the basis of the organization are expressed by symbols [74].

According to some researchers, several and various dimensions of school culture are deter-

A democratic school management includes determination of representatives through elections, a transparent management philosophy, providing a free working environment to the employees, entrenching a system which allows employees and students to express themselves freely and creating a culture which adopts equality as a common value, etc., [78]. Some studies showed that the subordinates of participatory leaders have higher satisfaction than the subordinates of some rampant leader types and that an increase in participation and cooperation level also increases the level of identification of employees with their organizations; other studies indicated that there is a meaningful relation between increase in morals and efficiency and more participation and that when workers determine production targets themselves, they determined a target which is above normal levels and that they surpassed this target in a short period of time (Roethlisberger and Bavelas cited in Davis [77]), (cited in [79]). As a result, it can be thought that success is inevitable in organizations which have a democratic school culture.

Cooperation can be defined in general terms as "a working partnership or business partnership created by individuals with same purposes and interests." Support is the degree of help and sincerity provided by managers to their subordinates [80]. In his definition of school culture, Senge underlines the need to support the process between attitudes, values and habits. The existence of a supported professional community prevents teachers from giving in to exhaustion and empowers and motivates them (cited in [81]). There are stronger relations between education employees who enjoy an environment of trust, as a result of which they can display common stance in the face of problems and everybody can make contribution to the solution. If an environment of trust cannot be created, the relations between employees

The most important and explicit feature of school culture is that it receives the raw material (student) that it processes from the society, subjects them to the necessary education process and gives back to the society. It is also distinguished form other organizations in that all formal and informal organizations around the school direct or influence it. The development of a child at school must be in the same direction with the sensitiveness that the family shows to education. In this sense, two advantages of cooperation between family and school can be mentioned: first, the interest shown by the family to school and student provides motivation. Second, families that are familiar to the structure, values and standards of the school can

**3.4. Dimensions of school culture**

12 Leadership

**2. Cooperation, support and trust**

are damaged and sharing and cooperation are reduced.

**3. The relation between school and environment**

mined. These dimensions are as follows:

**1. Democratic management and participation**

A distinct result of a strong culture is low employee turnover rate. In a strong culture, there is a high level of agreement among members on what the organization represents. Such a unity of purpose stimulates the senses of organizational belonging of employees, as a result of which the tendencies of employees to leave the organization are reduced [80]. Integration is the psychological commitment between an individual and the organization. This situation involves not only engagement of the individual to work and commitment to the organization but also his/her beliefs about the dominant values of the organization. Members of an organization can integrate with the group and the organization as well as its objectives through some shared cultural elements. For this reason, it is essential that the manager imposes an awareness of "us" in the organization so that employees benefit organizational integration and sense of belonging. In addition, in order to create a sense of belonging and community at the school, a stable group based on long-term togetherness is needed above all. Long-term togetherness of the staff is essential in terms of integration. Frequent turnover of managers or employees has a negative impact on the development of integration. On the other hand, the feeling of being a community is related to the sense of being a community that is related to all members of the school community accepting themselves as a part of the school and integrating with the school (Alavi et al., [83]).

#### **3.5. Features of school culture**

As an organization, school is an organization which adds the behavior needed to reach preset educational objectives in a planned manner and within a certain period. It is a system operating under public surveillance where transfer of knowledge and skills is realized in a programmed and systematic manner [78].

Features of a school organization can be listed as follows:


#### **3.6. The benefits of school culture**

Although the definition of culture is difficult to measure and causes some concerns, organizational culture offers a variety of benefits to this organizational leader and organizational members [64, 65].

Handy [92] stated that trust:

• Requires constant learning • Requires being connected

• Sharing essential information about oneself

• Taking risk in offers for feedback and help

• Accepting weaknesses and errors

• Being willing to be influenced

• Behaving in fairness and stability

• Keeping promises

listed as follows [93]:

• Sincere apologies

• Keeping promises

Trust is fragile; for this reason, it is not expected to show continuity. The behaviors which

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develop and preserve trust can be listed as follows (Covey 2004 cited in [93]):

• Accepting the questions and information about the scope of your irresponsibilities

The recommendations for repairing trust in the case that trust is reduced or breached can be

Establishment of organizational trust at schools is not an easy task. Education institutions are environments where changes in terminal behaviors are targeted and within this framework interpersonal relations are experienced in the most intense manner. Ensuring the formation of

• Giving the benefit of trust to others before reaching negative conclusions

• Asking for help and using the skills and experiences of others

• Refraining from abusing others who are open to criticism

• Spending time and energy on cooperative benefit

• Not allowing the affected person to affect you

• Is not blind

• Requires limits

• Requires contact • Has to be earned

• Is strict

