**2. Reconceptualization of instructional leadership: distributed leadership**

Until the 1990s, researchers focused on school principals as leaders who frame goals of the schools, maintain great expectations for teachers and students, promote development of teachers, supervise instruction, coordinate curriculum, monitor progress of the students and develop school program as an expert [27]. Researchers have put a great emphasis on the leadership skills of principals in effective schools since the end of the 1970s, and they have considered that these skills are one of the main factors of school effectiveness [25]. Democratic and also participative organization of schools conflicted with the hierarchic position of instructional leadership in the late 1980s during effective school restructuring movement which aimed to empower teachers accepted as professional educators (Marks and Louis 1997 as cited in [21]). Because of the limitations of instructional model focused on principals, attention was switched to transformational leadership and subsequently to distributed leadership [28].

Increase in responsibilities and accountability of school leadership created the need for leadership distribution in schools. Hall and Hord [29] did a research related to fruitful change in schools and concluded that it is impossible for school principals to do it alone. This means that teaching cannot be improved by only school principal, and this work should be distributed across the school leaders [30, 31]. Then school leadership was reconceptualized as distributed leadership [32]. Distributed leadership is a collective action that can be exercised by the school principal, their assistants, heads of departments, teacher leaders and other members who aim the improvement of school [33–37]. Hargreaves and Goodson [38] note that distributed leadership is not an end in itself; it is distributed among instructional leaders. Instructional leaders share the responsibility of supervision of instruction, staff and curricular development.

During the 1990s, consideration of the role of teachers as leaders increased [39]. Principals have more chance to spend time in the classrooms of small primary schools to monitor teaching, but they may need teacher leaders or heads of departments to engage in curriculum in large secondary schools [40]. Youngs and King [41] stress that principals may build the capacity of school with the aid of teacher leaders. According to results of the studies done by Marks and Printy [21], schools become high-performing organizations when teachers share the instructional leadership with school principals. In this frame, it was defined who the teacher leaders are and what they do. Department chairs, curriculum managers, coaches, specialists, professional development coordinators, consultants, mentor teachers, resource teachers and demonstration teachers can be teacher leaders. Some of the teacher leaders can focus on different subjects or different grades, or they may focus on only one subject or one grade level [42]. Many of the teacher leaders may have full-time leadership role out of their classes, or some may take responsibility both as teacher and part-time leader [43]. Roles of teacher leaders for improvement of instruction and enhancing student learning are identified by researchers as follows:

• Promoting school vision

• Individuals who execute education-teaching activities recruiting their power from expertise

Until the 1990s, researchers focused on school principals as leaders who frame goals of the schools, maintain great expectations for teachers and students, promote development of teachers, supervise instruction, coordinate curriculum, monitor progress of the students and develop school program as an expert [27]. Researchers have put a great emphasis on the leadership skills of principals in effective schools since the end of the 1970s, and they have considered that these skills are one of the main factors of school effectiveness [25]. Democratic and also participative organization of schools conflicted with the hierarchic position of instructional leadership in the late 1980s during effective school restructuring movement which aimed to empower teachers accepted as professional educators (Marks and Louis 1997 as cited in [21]). Because of the limitations of instructional model focused on principals, attention was switched to transformational leadership and subsequently to

Increase in responsibilities and accountability of school leadership created the need for leadership distribution in schools. Hall and Hord [29] did a research related to fruitful change in schools and concluded that it is impossible for school principals to do it alone. This means that teaching cannot be improved by only school principal, and this work should be distributed across the school leaders [30, 31]. Then school leadership was reconceptualized as distributed leadership [32]. Distributed leadership is a collective action that can be exercised by the school principal, their assistants, heads of departments, teacher leaders and other members who aim the improvement of school [33–37]. Hargreaves and Goodson [38] note that distributed leadership is not an end in itself; it is distributed among instructional leaders. Instructional leaders share the responsibility of supervision of instruction, staff and curricular development.

During the 1990s, consideration of the role of teachers as leaders increased [39]. Principals have more chance to spend time in the classrooms of small primary schools to monitor teaching, but they may need teacher leaders or heads of departments to engage in curriculum in large secondary schools [40]. Youngs and King [41] stress that principals may build the capacity of school with the aid of teacher leaders. According to results of the studies done by Marks and Printy [21], schools become high-performing organizations when teachers share the instructional leadership with school principals. In this frame, it was defined who the teacher leaders are and what they do. Department chairs, curriculum managers, coaches, specialists, professional development coordinators, consultants, mentor teachers, resource teachers and demonstration teachers can be teacher leaders. Some of the teacher leaders can focus on different subjects or different grades, or they may focus on only one subject or one

**2. Reconceptualization of instructional leadership: distributed** 

• Able to create an organizational culture • Manifests coherent education philosophy

**leadership**

8 Leadership

distributed leadership [28].


Peer coaching idea was first explored by Showers and Joyce [46]. They suggested that teachers should coach each other in complimentary ways. Coaching is a class-based support given by qualified, knowledgeable individuals to teachers and coaches to explore the ways on how to increase teaching practices of the teachers by using their own students [47]. Applications of coaching differ both within and between schools [48]. Coaches may focus one subject or grade or may work across grades or schools like teacher leaders, and they can be teacher leaders who coach in addition to classroom teaching, or they can be from outside the school [49]. Roles of peer coaches were identified by the researchers as follows:


Teachers believe that coaches are not useful if they spent more time on management and administrative duties than their needs [51]. Based on the results of studies, it was noted that the quality of teachers' instructional practices for class discussions improved [53] and also student achievement increased with coaching program [33, 54, 55].

and harmoniously with the organizational leader, as well as by providing regular procedures for the strategy and methods of putting the work into practice. Organizational culture leads to the emergence of new leaders who are identical in qualities to individuals who work within it and of its members. It provides a solid relationship between the individuals working in organizational culture and benefits such as contributing to the formation of cooperative working teams.

The Relationship between Instructional Leadership Style, Trust and School Culture

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75950

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In their research, Kowalski et al. [66] stated that one of the most important elements of school cultures is sharing. According to Robbins [67], management refers to one of the functions of communication as providing sharing. As for Senge [68], communication manager has been included in the factors that make a leader. In the organizations, it is possible to produce, share, interpret and understand the meaning of organizational communication in the processes of management functions such as effective coordination of managers [69, 70]. In this context, it can be said that there is an important share of communication in the formation of organizational culture, which is expressed as organizational integration and assumptions leading to external compatibility [65, 67]. The creation and strengthening of school culture are

seen as a fundamental necessity for supporting and sustaining success in school [71].

shaped through reflection and interactions between individuals.

through organizations, legends, rituals, meanings, values and norms [73].

goals will be easier when beliefs are internalized in an organization [75].

**3.3. Elements of school culture**

norms [76].

live or listen [74].

time, cultivation [74].

must originate from cultural values [74].

organizations, heroes are role models [74].

Finnan [72] notes that school culture is not a static element but is constantly being built and

School culture gives a sense of formal identity and draws a way for organizational processes

**a. Values:** The values and actions of individuals in the organization are measured and evaluated. Values are wider and tighter when compared to norms. To legitimize norms, they

**b. Beliefs:** According to Schein [75], beliefs direct the behaviors of members of an organization by telling them how they should think and feel. The more beliefs are similar and shared by people, the more they become settled and distinct in the culture. Reaching the

**c. Norms:** Norms are invisible elements. If organizations want to improve the performance and increase the profitability of their employees, the first element they need to focus on is

**d. Heroes:** Heroes are important people who make organization culture or adopt organization culture. At the same time, the heroes are symbolic of the organization culture. In many

**e. Stories and tales:** In relation to the organization, they are important events that members

**f. Language:** One of the key elements of communication is the language and, at the same
