**Deployment**

**Chapter 9**

Provisional chapter

**The Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Use and Usability**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80481

With the worldwide calls to meet greenhouse gas targets and policy objectives by 2030, finding an electric vehicle (EV) on the way to work every day has become less surprising. Adapting to owning an EV is challenging to all potential users. Current users tend to rely on domestic charging for a more certain and less hassle charging opportunity. The demand is shifting towards workplace charging (WPC) as a cheap and convenient solution due to the relatively long time the car is parked there. WPC fills a critical gap in EV charging infrastructure needs by extending electric miles and building range confidence. This chapter reports on the social practice of using one of the WPC facilities in the UK. It investigates the use and usability problems that are faced (n = 12) by EV users at work-

Keywords: workplace charging, electric vehicles, charging pattern, behaviour change,

Transport represents one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy in terms of energy use and environmental impact. The car has become ubiquitous in late modern society; it is the spine of communities, and the leading object of mobility. Electric vehicles (EVs) show the potential to reduce the energy cost of driving [1] and the environmental burdens of the transport sector and it is seen as the core of future mobility pattern [2]. They are emerging as a zero carbon alternative to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. The transport sector currently supports a wide range of ubiquitous technologies [3]. Research on intelligent transport systems (ITS) covers a wide field, as it comprises combinations of communication, computer, and control technology developed and applied in transport to improve efficiency and system performance

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Use and Usability

**Problems of EV Workplace Charging Facilities**

Problems of EV Workplace Charging Facilities

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

place environment in one of the UK public sector employer.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80481

Eiman Elbanhawy

Abstract

shared resources

1. Introduction

Eiman Elbanhawy

#### **The Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Use and Usability Problems of EV Workplace Charging Facilities** The Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Use and Usability Problems of EV Workplace Charging Facilities

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.80481

Eiman Elbanhawy Eiman Elbanhawy

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80481

#### Abstract

With the worldwide calls to meet greenhouse gas targets and policy objectives by 2030, finding an electric vehicle (EV) on the way to work every day has become less surprising. Adapting to owning an EV is challenging to all potential users. Current users tend to rely on domestic charging for a more certain and less hassle charging opportunity. The demand is shifting towards workplace charging (WPC) as a cheap and convenient solution due to the relatively long time the car is parked there. WPC fills a critical gap in EV charging infrastructure needs by extending electric miles and building range confidence. This chapter reports on the social practice of using one of the WPC facilities in the UK. It investigates the use and usability problems that are faced (n = 12) by EV users at workplace environment in one of the UK public sector employer.

Keywords: workplace charging, electric vehicles, charging pattern, behaviour change, shared resources

#### 1. Introduction

Transport represents one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy in terms of energy use and environmental impact. The car has become ubiquitous in late modern society; it is the spine of communities, and the leading object of mobility. Electric vehicles (EVs) show the potential to reduce the energy cost of driving [1] and the environmental burdens of the transport sector and it is seen as the core of future mobility pattern [2]. They are emerging as a zero carbon alternative to conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. The transport sector currently supports a wide range of ubiquitous technologies [3]. Research on intelligent transport systems (ITS) covers a wide field, as it comprises combinations of communication, computer, and control technology developed and applied in transport to improve efficiency and system performance

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

and facilitate mobility. Innovative technologies can be applied to vehicles as well as transport infrastructure and are used by stakeholders embracing transport organisation, information technology (real time information, tracking and vehicle-to-vehicle communication) and passengers to improve service quality and transport management.

include WPC within their daily schedules. However, the problem of shared resources remains especially in small-scale institutions where supply and demand problem arises (the number of

The Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Use and Usability Problems of EV Workplace Charging Facilities

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80481

179

To be able to fully understand the nature of the EV charging at workplace environment, an indepth study of a particular WPC scheme is presented and the emerging social practice around the sharing of CPs among staff is discussed. We derive empirical EV charging pattern and communication between users with access to the same charging network and show how they are affected by charging management as well as charging power. We started this research in early 2015, and have been reporting on some insights of the WPC practice ever since [28]. EV drivers face four particular challenges compared to drivers using the established fossil fuel infrastructure: (i) current battery technology limits range, so depending on the commuted distance drivers may be required to recharge while at work in order to get home without stopping; (ii) re-charging takes significantly longer time than conventional fossil fuel refuelling; (iii) the infrastructure for charging is poorly developed compared to the traditional infrastructure, and (iv) EV drivers may have to compete for the charge points that are available. In order to overcome these hurdles, the planning of non-domestic charging infrastructure

The uncertainty of having access to away from home charging facility has slowed the growing trend of smart ecosystems [18, 31, 39]. Recently, it has been claimed that WPC adds flexibility to work day, expand their comfort zone, and shall double the daily range of individuals [29, 28]. However, with the emerging need to have access to the WPC, in some cases the supply surpluses the demand, which creates sort of a competition spirit between the users, so each of them meets their mobility demand. In order to analyse the charging patterns and the importance of the WPC, research has to be backed up with evidence and empirical data that can analytically collaborate the preposition. With the lack of actual data about charging patterns [32] and user preferences, the demand of best practices and showcases is becoming an urgent matter for future development and strategic planning. This study investigates WPC systems by taking a case study approach to a functioning WPC scheme operational at a university. For this study, we had access to all possible data needed to analyse the social practice of the shared charging

resources. Unlike the use of public charging, the workplace has unique characteristics:

2. Equality: each EV driver has access to the same number of CPs everyone has; 3. Reachability: users can reach each other as they are working in the same place;

1. Population: closed population with identified EVs usually stationary for the entire work day;

4. Environment: Peer pressure, human aspect, self-regulation, community collaboration, social

This chapter illuminates two research questions: Can we categorise the charging patterns of WPC users? and What are the WPC design requirements that would overcome the use and

the CPs is not sufficient for the current EV employees).

needs to be addressed with the associated different factors.

1.2. The emerging questions

and anti-social qualities may arise.

usability problems?

A multitude of new worldwide policy objectives and measures is caused by the increasing demand for energy and electricity in particular, decrease fossil energy source stocks and the necessity to act against climate change [4]. In recent years, the environmental burden of urban road traffic has been of concern to governments and authorities of developed countries [8, 9] with an increasing interest in mitigating this [10, 11] as well as to develop and (re-) design cities to make them greener [9]. Electric mobility (E-mobility) offers considerable potential to make progress in a variety of wider environmental, societal, and economic objectives [10], which accelerates the development of smarter and sustainable cities [5, 6, 24]. Even though EVs have existed for some decades, the term is still thought of as a new technology [14]. The EV market is dynamic and has unanticipated market changes, the overall market share has grown steadily since 2011 [15], yet it is less than 1% as of 2014 [16] and in Germany and most of the other countries below 1% January 2015. The Electric Vehicle Industry Association (EVIA) forecasts varied wildly ever since and could have been affected by incentives and fuel costs, the projection was raised to 2.4% of total new vehicle sales by 2022 [15, 16]. The reasons behind the slow growth of the EV market are multifaceted. Many factors are responsible, which vary between socio-technical, economical, and psycho-temporal. In order to increase the market penetration and reach 2030 and 2050 EU and UK targets and policy objectives environmental targets [22, 14], the stakeholders particularly R&D, planning authorities and policy makers should develop deployment and operation plans. These plans should take into account the user experience and user interface, where the power of end-user feedback, design requirements and social influence are considered.

Individuals and families struggle with the decision of owning an EV, this is tied directly to the different issues related to limited range [20] and the known anxiety of not having access to a charging point (CP) [18, 19]. Research by Grahm-Rohe et al. 2012 showed that EV Drivers in England Drivers' fear that their EV will not have sufficient power to reach their next destination represents one of the main barriers to the acceptance to this emerging technology [23, 14, 16]. In England, the EV drivers reported that their experience recharging their cars is perceived simpler than anticipated [25]. Despite major technological developments in various EV areas of research, there is a list of issues that needs to be addressed. Among these, the need for a reliable and diverse charging infrastructure, which meets different user needs, is placed at the forefront [26]. Perceptions of EV-resources and, in particular, the limited range and infrastructure shifts over time differ between individuals [27].

#### 1.1. Research importance

The chapter focuses on the emerging social behaviour of EV workplace charging facility (WPC). From literature, the WPC is gaining more attention within the EV community. Employers started to install CPs at their premises in a way to show commitment and environmental concerns, and reduce travel-to-work journeys' carbon emissions. Users started to change their patterns to include WPC within their daily schedules. However, the problem of shared resources remains especially in small-scale institutions where supply and demand problem arises (the number of the CPs is not sufficient for the current EV employees).

To be able to fully understand the nature of the EV charging at workplace environment, an indepth study of a particular WPC scheme is presented and the emerging social practice around the sharing of CPs among staff is discussed. We derive empirical EV charging pattern and communication between users with access to the same charging network and show how they are affected by charging management as well as charging power. We started this research in early 2015, and have been reporting on some insights of the WPC practice ever since [28]. EV drivers face four particular challenges compared to drivers using the established fossil fuel infrastructure: (i) current battery technology limits range, so depending on the commuted distance drivers may be required to recharge while at work in order to get home without stopping; (ii) re-charging takes significantly longer time than conventional fossil fuel refuelling; (iii) the infrastructure for charging is poorly developed compared to the traditional infrastructure, and (iv) EV drivers may have to compete for the charge points that are available. In order to overcome these hurdles, the planning of non-domestic charging infrastructure needs to be addressed with the associated different factors.

#### 1.2. The emerging questions

and facilitate mobility. Innovative technologies can be applied to vehicles as well as transport infrastructure and are used by stakeholders embracing transport organisation, information technology (real time information, tracking and vehicle-to-vehicle communication) and passen-

A multitude of new worldwide policy objectives and measures is caused by the increasing demand for energy and electricity in particular, decrease fossil energy source stocks and the necessity to act against climate change [4]. In recent years, the environmental burden of urban road traffic has been of concern to governments and authorities of developed countries [8, 9] with an increasing interest in mitigating this [10, 11] as well as to develop and (re-) design cities to make them greener [9]. Electric mobility (E-mobility) offers considerable potential to make progress in a variety of wider environmental, societal, and economic objectives [10], which accelerates the development of smarter and sustainable cities [5, 6, 24]. Even though EVs have existed for some decades, the term is still thought of as a new technology [14]. The EV market is dynamic and has unanticipated market changes, the overall market share has grown steadily since 2011 [15], yet it is less than 1% as of 2014 [16] and in Germany and most of the other countries below 1% January 2015. The Electric Vehicle Industry Association (EVIA) forecasts varied wildly ever since and could have been affected by incentives and fuel costs, the projection was raised to 2.4% of total new vehicle sales by 2022 [15, 16]. The reasons behind the slow growth of the EV market are multifaceted. Many factors are responsible, which vary between socio-technical, economical, and psycho-temporal. In order to increase the market penetration and reach 2030 and 2050 EU and UK targets and policy objectives environmental targets [22, 14], the stakeholders particularly R&D, planning authorities and policy makers should develop deployment and operation plans. These plans should take into account the user experience and user interface, where the power of end-user feedback, design requirements

Individuals and families struggle with the decision of owning an EV, this is tied directly to the different issues related to limited range [20] and the known anxiety of not having access to a charging point (CP) [18, 19]. Research by Grahm-Rohe et al. 2012 showed that EV Drivers in England Drivers' fear that their EV will not have sufficient power to reach their next destination represents one of the main barriers to the acceptance to this emerging technology [23, 14, 16]. In England, the EV drivers reported that their experience recharging their cars is perceived simpler than anticipated [25]. Despite major technological developments in various EV areas of research, there is a list of issues that needs to be addressed. Among these, the need for a reliable and diverse charging infrastructure, which meets different user needs, is placed at the forefront [26]. Perceptions of EV-resources and, in particular, the limited range and infra-

The chapter focuses on the emerging social behaviour of EV workplace charging facility (WPC). From literature, the WPC is gaining more attention within the EV community. Employers started to install CPs at their premises in a way to show commitment and environmental concerns, and reduce travel-to-work journeys' carbon emissions. Users started to change their patterns to

gers to improve service quality and transport management.

178 New Trends in Electrical Vehicle Powertrains

and social influence are considered.

1.1. Research importance

structure shifts over time differ between individuals [27].

The uncertainty of having access to away from home charging facility has slowed the growing trend of smart ecosystems [18, 31, 39]. Recently, it has been claimed that WPC adds flexibility to work day, expand their comfort zone, and shall double the daily range of individuals [29, 28]. However, with the emerging need to have access to the WPC, in some cases the supply surpluses the demand, which creates sort of a competition spirit between the users, so each of them meets their mobility demand. In order to analyse the charging patterns and the importance of the WPC, research has to be backed up with evidence and empirical data that can analytically collaborate the preposition. With the lack of actual data about charging patterns [32] and user preferences, the demand of best practices and showcases is becoming an urgent matter for future development and strategic planning. This study investigates WPC systems by taking a case study approach to a functioning WPC scheme operational at a university. For this study, we had access to all possible data needed to analyse the social practice of the shared charging resources. Unlike the use of public charging, the workplace has unique characteristics:


This chapter illuminates two research questions: Can we categorise the charging patterns of WPC users? and What are the WPC design requirements that would overcome the use and usability problems?

#### 1.3. EV recharging alternatives

At home charging, which is referred to as the "main charging" [33], allows most EV drivers to fully charge from empty within 3–7 hours (e.g. current Nissan LEAF battery 24–30 kWh capacity, which will charge in about 3 hours at 32A or 7 hours at 16A). The time taken for an EV battery to be charged depends (charging time) on the initial state of charge (at arrival), the battery capacity, age of the battery, type, and level of CP.

Charging at home using a standard 13A outlet or dedicated 16–32A unit has positive values: (i) quiet operation, (ii) zero tail-pipe emissions, (iii) possible green energy in case of solar panel, (iv) ease of use, and (v) the car typically spends most of its idle time at this location (especially at night). However, the current limited range of many EVs means that even a full overnight charge may not meet the daily mileage demand [34]. The recharging time takes several hours, which is considered as a limitation that severely hinders the usability of EVs [35]. Moreover, domestic charging is not an option in the case of 'garage orphans'. A 'garage orphan' is defined as a resident, who has no off-street parking at their residence, or who has off-street parking, but no access to electricity supply close enough to the parking location [36].

#### 1.4. Non-domestic charging

Besides charging at home, EV users can also make use of public CPs with more of these appearing as a facility offered by larger stores, in city centres or located at petrol stations. In the UK, CPs are usually IEC 62196 (Mennekes) sockets with a maximum of 32A (6.6 kW), although some standard 3 pin 13A CPs remain, so they are compatible with all EVs. There are four main EV charging types: slow (up to 3.3 kW), which is best suited for 6–8 hours overnight; Fast (7–22 kW), which can fully recharge some models in 3–4 hours; and Rapid AC and DC (43–50 kW), which are able to provide an 80% charge in around 30 minutes. Service providers are expanding their rapid charging networks in order to alleviate this gap in the system and to meet the end user charging demand and preference especially with the current EV market penetration. There are national charging network websites (www.Zipmap,.ac.uk), Twitter hash tag (#UKCharge) and blogs (unofficial Nissan Leaf forum (www.leaftalk.co.uk) that show updates for all CPs across the UK. In addition, each service provider [e.g. Charge Your Car (CYC) in the North East of England] and Chargemaster Plc. covering mainly Midlands and South of England have their own websites and live maps to show the charging network updates, see Figure 1. In addition to other countrywide open source applications, see Figure 2.

charging infrastructure [19]. In return, EV might be more spread out and peak problems could be reduced [39–41]. It increases the certainty of having access to charge apart from the domestic one, which in turn decreases EV range anxiety. Because EVs are parked at workplaces for substantial periods over the weekdays, WPC is a promising option only if practical ways can

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http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80481

181

Figure 2. ZAP map and polar, smart phone applications for EV charging network real-time updates.

Inside many EVs, there is a built in telematics service that allows the driver to interact with the car's energy management systems, as in Nissan Leaf telematics system, NissanConnect EV (Carwings before) mobile application and car display (Figure 3). In addition to the user interface, the user can access the car remotely from their smartphone or computer by downloading the application or logging in with their credentials. To check the public charging network,

EV owners often create their own collection of applications that cover their mobility demand (e.g., users who do not charge non-domestically, are not keen to install various chargingrelated applications). Based on the charging network memberships and the open access maps

be found to provide the needed infrastructure.

Figure 1. Print screen of CYC network real-time update.

1.6. E-mobility from an end user perspective

there are various smartphone applications that can be downloaded.

#### 1.5. Workplace charging

WPC has often been considered in third place in terms of priority behind domestic and public charging infrastructure, and has not been given broad attention. WPC refers to EV charging facility that is provided at or near the user's place of employment [37]. Users only decide to charge away from home for specific reasons due to extra required planning and extra costs (Jabeen et al., 2013). On the other hand, the availability of WPC eases the pressure of electricity peak demand on the grid [38, 31]. Although not all users need to charge at work in order to return home, the ability to charge increases flexibility [33] and fills a critical gap in the EV The Spatio-Temporal Analysis of the Use and Usability Problems of EV Workplace Charging Facilities http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80481 181

Figure 1. Print screen of CYC network real-time update.

1.3. EV recharging alternatives

180 New Trends in Electrical Vehicle Powertrains

1.4. Non-domestic charging

1.5. Workplace charging

battery capacity, age of the battery, type, and level of CP.

At home charging, which is referred to as the "main charging" [33], allows most EV drivers to fully charge from empty within 3–7 hours (e.g. current Nissan LEAF battery 24–30 kWh capacity, which will charge in about 3 hours at 32A or 7 hours at 16A). The time taken for an EV battery to be charged depends (charging time) on the initial state of charge (at arrival), the

Charging at home using a standard 13A outlet or dedicated 16–32A unit has positive values: (i) quiet operation, (ii) zero tail-pipe emissions, (iii) possible green energy in case of solar panel, (iv) ease of use, and (v) the car typically spends most of its idle time at this location (especially at night). However, the current limited range of many EVs means that even a full overnight charge may not meet the daily mileage demand [34]. The recharging time takes several hours, which is considered as a limitation that severely hinders the usability of EVs [35]. Moreover, domestic charging is not an option in the case of 'garage orphans'. A 'garage orphan' is defined as a resident, who has no off-street parking at their residence, or who has off-street parking,

Besides charging at home, EV users can also make use of public CPs with more of these appearing as a facility offered by larger stores, in city centres or located at petrol stations. In the UK, CPs are usually IEC 62196 (Mennekes) sockets with a maximum of 32A (6.6 kW), although some standard 3 pin 13A CPs remain, so they are compatible with all EVs. There are four main EV charging types: slow (up to 3.3 kW), which is best suited for 6–8 hours overnight; Fast (7–22 kW), which can fully recharge some models in 3–4 hours; and Rapid AC and DC (43–50 kW), which are able to provide an 80% charge in around 30 minutes. Service providers are expanding their rapid charging networks in order to alleviate this gap in the system and to meet the end user charging demand and preference especially with the current EV market penetration. There are national charging network websites (www.Zipmap,.ac.uk), Twitter hash tag (#UKCharge) and blogs (unofficial Nissan Leaf forum (www.leaftalk.co.uk) that show updates for all CPs across the UK. In addition, each service provider [e.g. Charge Your Car (CYC) in the North East of England] and Chargemaster Plc. covering mainly Midlands and South of England have their own websites and live maps to show the charging network updates, see Figure 1. In addition to other countrywide open source applications, see Figure 2.

WPC has often been considered in third place in terms of priority behind domestic and public charging infrastructure, and has not been given broad attention. WPC refers to EV charging facility that is provided at or near the user's place of employment [37]. Users only decide to charge away from home for specific reasons due to extra required planning and extra costs (Jabeen et al., 2013). On the other hand, the availability of WPC eases the pressure of electricity peak demand on the grid [38, 31]. Although not all users need to charge at work in order to return home, the ability to charge increases flexibility [33] and fills a critical gap in the EV

but no access to electricity supply close enough to the parking location [36].


Figure 2. ZAP map and polar, smart phone applications for EV charging network real-time updates.

charging infrastructure [19]. In return, EV might be more spread out and peak problems could be reduced [39–41]. It increases the certainty of having access to charge apart from the domestic one, which in turn decreases EV range anxiety. Because EVs are parked at workplaces for substantial periods over the weekdays, WPC is a promising option only if practical ways can be found to provide the needed infrastructure.

#### 1.6. E-mobility from an end user perspective

Inside many EVs, there is a built in telematics service that allows the driver to interact with the car's energy management systems, as in Nissan Leaf telematics system, NissanConnect EV (Carwings before) mobile application and car display (Figure 3). In addition to the user interface, the user can access the car remotely from their smartphone or computer by downloading the application or logging in with their credentials. To check the public charging network, there are various smartphone applications that can be downloaded.

EV owners often create their own collection of applications that cover their mobility demand (e.g., users who do not charge non-domestically, are not keen to install various chargingrelated applications). Based on the charging network memberships and the open access maps

4. The driver can access it (e.g. finding a CYC charging point and the driver is not registered

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183

5. It is physically located and the driver is aware of its existence. The awareness and the certainty of having a CP is the main issue of WPC, which is the third alternative.

WPC refers to an EV charging facility that is provided at or near the user's place of employment [31]. Because EVs are parked at workplaces for substantial periods of time during weekdays, WPC is a promising option. Although not all users need to charge at work in order to return home, it is another chance to have access to away from home charging, which in turn

Since 2012, studies and research projects have tackled EV adoption [10], range issues, infrastructure [15], charging loads on electricity grid [19, 41] and the use of renewable energy to charge the battery [40]. WPC practices are published as business cases or corporate reports [42] by service providers or a summary of a governmental initiative or grant or scheme announcements [20, 19, 26, 28]. These reports provide data regarding the number of CPs, locations, power capacity, service provider, billing policy, and the number of users. They lack information about operation and management, as there are no examples or practices of usability and

In 2013, the Secretary of State for Transport announced a series of grant schemes for plug-in vehicle charge points via the Office for Low Emission Vehicles (OLEV). The grant schemes would provide up to 75% towards the cost of installing new CPs for public sector bodies to install WPC on their estate. In total, 43 public bodies were successful and were granted various amounts (£3200.00 up to £237,000.00) in 2013 and 2014 to install CPs [28]. In the case of councils, the grant covers public CPs across the city. For example in The Open University, two CPs were installed for use by eight EV fleets. In the city of Milton Keynes, 10 staff members leased a Nissan Leaf for 18 months and were given access to three dual WPC for free. The council reported 1500 charging events for the first year with a positive EV user feedback accessing WPC. A further five CPs were installed on three sites of a major health care trust. In another part of the country, 49 fast chargers were installed and in a major city in the south, 20 dual CPs across the city were installed with different service providers in order to deal with

The emissions from commuters are the main driver giving workplace charging facilities a higher priority. According to [35] in Las Anglos, average employees commute over 24 miles to work generating three times the emissions of the county fleet operation (428,000 MTCO2).

increases flexibility [4, 19] and decreases EV range anxiety.

2. Literature and related work

the memberships and billing policies.

utilisation of resources.

2.1. In the UK

2.2. In the USA

with CYC);

Figure 3. Nissan leaf telematics–NISSANCONNECT EV user interface-UI.

Figure 4. Various collections of smartphone applications EV users have.

each EV driver is using, they each create a list of applications; Figure 4 gives examples for different sets of applications 4 EV users have on their smart phones.

There are national charging network websites (www.Zipmap,.ac.uk), Twitter hash tag (#UKCharge) and blogs (unofficial Nissan Leaf forum (www.leaftalk.co.uk)) that show updates for all CPs across the UK. The social media and the service providers' applications do not cover the privately owned recharging network, which includes the CPs allocated for particular community, company staff members or customers only. This takes us to the definition of available CPs the EV driver may find in their journeys. An available CP means:


WPC refers to an EV charging facility that is provided at or near the user's place of employment [31]. Because EVs are parked at workplaces for substantial periods of time during weekdays, WPC is a promising option. Although not all users need to charge at work in order to return home, it is another chance to have access to away from home charging, which in turn increases flexibility [4, 19] and decreases EV range anxiety.
