**5. Conclusion**

**4. Commitment to research and awareness as effective tools in** 

Mycotoxicology research is an important component of mycotoxin management. Particularly in Africa, more research needs to be done in order to establish safe limits and guard against potential health hazards. Availability of stringent scientific data provides the basis for government regulatory bodies to assess the risk of exposure, as well as, establish/enforce or reassess regulatory limits for mycotoxins [52, 100]. For example, from central African countries, there is hardly any information on mycotoxins. This may be due to ignorance on the mycotoxin issue, poverty, lack of research facilities and skills/manpower in these countries [17]. In a recent study by Adekoya *et al*. [101], the perceived understanding, practices and health risks related to fungal and mycotoxin contamination amongst fermented food sellers was evaluated. It was observed that up to 98% of respondents were unaware of mycotoxin contamination [101]. Elsewhere, findings by Changwa [102] in South Africa indicated that there are several knowledge gaps on the mycotoxin issue, such as causes of mycotoxins, health implications, prevention and control of mycotoxins, which corroborates the observation of Adekoya *et al*. [101]. In a recent round-table discussion on future directions in research facilitated by the European Horizon2020 project, MycoKey, it was agreed that forging partnerships between scientists and appropriately-placed communication experts constitutes a critical avenue for creating awareness and communicating risks, while maintaining overall confidence in the

Despite all said, it must be acknowledged that mycotoxin research in Africa has yielded fruitful and positive results. While some of these studies were funded by governments in the continent, many are equally funded by research organizations and governments of other developed nations. For example, researchers at IITA and the University of Ibadan, in partnership with the Agriculture Research Service (ARS) of the United States Department of Agriculture developed a natural, safe and affordable solution to the problem of AF called "Aflasafe™", intended for use by groundnut and maize farmers. The product which contains non-toxigenic strains of *A. flavus*, is reported to be able to reduce AF levels in maize by 80–100%, and together with other good agricultural practices will increase the crop value by at least 25%, as well as improve the health of children and women [104, 105]. Due to the immense success of Aflasafe™, expansion of the biocontrol research reached Ghana, Tanzania, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Kenya, Mali, and Zambia [105]. AflaSTOP is another project which started in 2012, aimed at identifying the most effective, efficient, low-cost, innovative storage and drying technology to combat AF contamination, and other post-harvest losses in Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda [106]. The Aflasafe™ and Aflastop projects together with other mycotoxin projects described herein [95, 105] cost about 15–20 million US\$ in 2014 and 2–5 million US\$ in 2010, sponsored by the US Government under the Feed the Future (FTF)—USAID Bureau for Food Security [95, 105]. Last year 2017, Ethiopia farmers/researchers supported by Ethiopia's Agricultural Transformation Agency, was able to produce and market much of the 27 tons of new, diseaseresistant wheat seed, in direct response to an annual attack of rapidly-evolving fungal diseases that can infect their locally grown crops worth as much as 200 million US\$ [107]. Elsewhere, several African scientists are working on a project aimed at reduction of AF contamination

**mitigating the impact of mycotoxins in Africa**

12 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

quality and safety along the food supply chain [103].

The impact of mycotoxins on Africa has been and is still illustrious. Limited knowledge/ awareness, poverty, bad governance and climatic conditions have further aggravated this unfortunate situation. Africa is the largest continent in the world and the most plagued by the mycotoxin menace. Despite the notoriously incessant occurrence and exceptionally high levels of mycotoxins reported in dietary food for humans and animals, and the associated lethal consequences, regulation for their control and management is significantly limited in this part of the world. It has been projected that between 2015 and 2050, the population of Africa will increase by 1.3 billion people. In fact, according to the UN, the population of Nigeria alone is projected to surpass that of the entire US by 2050. This teaming population puts immense pressure on the already scarce food resources on the continent. More compelling is the fact that Africa's population is comprised mainly of the younger age (with two-fifths between the ages of 0–14 years, and one-fifth in the age bracket to 15–24 years), where good food and health plays a critical role in the overall development of individuals. As such, the proliferation and widespread effect of mycotoxins in Africa is of great concern. The eminent reality of climate change is also looming steadily with Africa at the epicentre. Biodiversification of fungi due to adaptation to climate change leads to threats of newer mycotoxins or more of existing ones. In order to stay aligned with the UN's sustainable development goals (particularly goal No. 2: end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture), a concerted effort is needed to adequately address the issue of mycotoxin in Africa and other developing countries of the world. Critical areas to concentrate efforts include development of efficient and cost-effective intervention strategies, public awareness, strengthening research and human capacity development as well as harmonizing and enforcing regulations.
