*2.5.3. Tillage practises*

Field preparation and cultivation practices play a central role in the management of *Fusarium* diseases and associated mycotoxins [84]. The burial of plant residues from a previous planting season by deep ploughing can reduce the primary inoculum that causes infections [85]. This is especially important when crops are affected by the same *Fusarium* species, such as *F. graminearum* on maize, wheat and sorghum grown in rotation [4]. While minimum tillage has significantly decreased stalk rot and increased grain yield of sorghum in South Africa [86], it has also increased inoculum build-up of mycotoxigenic fungi in maize cropping systems [84]. Alternate tillage practices, however, have had little effect on the incidence of FER in maize [87, 88].

#### *2.5.4. Managing plant stressors*

Limiting plant stress to increase plant vigour by adhering to optimum plant dates, preventing drought stress and the optimal use of fertilisers have reduced *Fusarium* infection in a number of grain crops [76, 89–91]. However, maize cultivated by means of organic agriculture does not accumulate less FUM than maize cultivated conventionally [92, 93]. Extended periods of heat and drought stress that lead to increased FUM levels could be managed with proper irrigation schedules [77, 94]. Managing plant stress conditions is also important as this is considered key in the symptomless endophytic relationship converting to a disease- and/or mycotoxin-producing interaction [95].
