4. Use of probiotics to prevent AFB1 toxic effects in poultry

Microbiological control of AFB1 is still considered as a promising area in research; so recently, these methods have attracted researcher's attention due to their easy usage and affordable processes [69]. However, since the use of microorganisms is expected to be safe both for animal health and for the production of innocuous livestock products, there are still many microorganisms that cannot be directly employed in the food or feed directly. In the last decades, research to find microorganisms for AFB1 control has focused on testing, screening, and choosing those strains that have demonstrated their effectiveness not only to reduce or even suppress AFB1 toxicity but also to be Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) [70, 71].

There are several microorganisms that have been shown to be effective in preventing and controlling the toxic effects of AFB1; among them, probiotic bacterial strains are some of the most studied, due largely to their GRAS character and because they have shown to have several potential applications against AFB1 both in vitro and in vivo [72–75]. Probiotics are living microorganisms that when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit to the host directly or indirectly through the maintenance of the microbial balance in their digestive tract [65, 76]. Several bacterial genera have been used as probiotics in livestock, including many species of Bacillus, Bifidobacterium, Enterococcus, E. coli, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Streptococcus, although some species of molds and yeasts, such as Aspergillus, Candida, and Saccharomyces, have also been used [77, 78].

values, and no modification of food or feed properties [58, 59]. Since cost-effective methods to detoxify mycotoxin-contaminated grains and foods are urgently needed to minimize potential losses to the farmer and toxicological hazards to the consumer [60], finding of new and suitable

In this sense, microbiological control approach has taken strength in the field of research to control AFB1. Researchers have focused on biological treatments for detoxification mainly through two mechanisms: adsorption and degradation, both of which can be achieved by

Biological adsorption can occur either by attaching the AFB1 to the cell wall components of the microorganisms or by active internalization and accumulation. Also, dead microorganisms can absorb AFB1, and this phenomenon can be exploited in the creation of biofilters for fluid decontamination or probiotics to bind and remove the AFB1 from the intestine [62]. However, biological adsorption mechanism is naturally reversible, and AFB1 may be easily released, so that it is necessary to search for novel approaches to overcome these drawbacks, as for example the combination of mineral and biological adsorbents to improve their effectiveness [63].

On the other hand, microbiological biodegradation is performed by either extracellular or intracellular enzymes, so the degradation is generally permanent and irreversible which can alter, reduce, or completely eradicate AFB1 toxicity [30]. Nevertheless, modification of AFB1 structure can result in other molecules, such as aflatoxicol (AFL), also with potential toxic effects [64]. Thus, further knowledge is needed on the identification, quantity, and toxicity of degradation metabolites prior to the potential applications of biological treatments [59].

Microbiological control seems to be becoming one of the most promising approaches for AFB1 control; since the last four decades, the use of microorganisms is one of the well-known strategies for the management of AFB1 in foods and feeds. These methods of bioadsorption and biodegradation are being actively studied and can be a highly promising choice because

Microbiological control of AFB1 is still considered as a promising area in research; so recently, these methods have attracted researcher's attention due to their easy usage and affordable processes [69]. However, since the use of microorganisms is expected to be safe both for animal health and for the production of innocuous livestock products, there are still many microorganisms that cannot be directly employed in the food or feed directly. In the last decades, research to find microorganisms for AFB1 control has focused on testing, screening, and choosing those strains that have demonstrated their effectiveness not only to reduce or even

There are several microorganisms that have been shown to be effective in preventing and controlling the toxic effects of AFB1; among them, probiotic bacterial strains are some of the

biological systems such as bacteria, yeasts, molds, actinomycetes, and algae [61].

methods for AFB1 decontamination has become a primary need.

152 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

they are efficient, specific, and environmentally friendly [65–68].

4. Use of probiotics to prevent AFB1 toxic effects in poultry

suppress AFB1 toxicity but also to be Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) [70, 71].

In poultry industry, probiotics have been reported to have a beneficial effect on performance, modulation of intestinal microflora and pathogen inhibition, intestinal histological changes, immunomodulation, certain hematobiochemical parameters, improving sensory characteristics of dressed meat, and promoting microbiological meat quality [79, 80]. In addition, probiotic bacteria may possess antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activity. The mechanisms of these activities remain unclear; however, alteration of fecal bacterial enzyme activities associated with conversion of promutagens and procarcinogens to ultimate carcinogens and binding of dietary mutagens and carcinogens has been proposed [81].

Three possible mechanisms have been proposed by which probiotics can counteract the toxic effects of AFB1: (1) competing with aflatoxigenic mold strains for space, occupying the same ecological niche or using nutrients, and thus reducing AFB1 biosynthesis; (2) encouraging AFB1 metabolic degradation by enzymes, or (3) impeding its intestinal absorption by AFB1 binding onto the cell walls of the probiotics strains.

It has been suggested by in vitro studies that probiotics can inhibit AFB1 production through releasing metabolites to the media, such as organic acids, bacteriocins, and even hydrogen peroxide, which may interfere with AFB1 biosynthesis [82, 83]. Other alternative could be the reduction or inhibition in the growth of aflatoxigenic mold strains caused by a decrease in pH of the media and/or a nutrient competition of the culture media, which could also have contributed to the removal of AFB1 [84–87]. In Figure 1, it is shown how some probiotics from the lactobacilli strains can decrease both AFB1 production and the growth rate of an aflatoxigenic mold strain.

Although several bacterial strains have been used as biocompetitive agents of aflatoxigenic mold strains, some of them become inactive under extreme conditions of humidity and temperature, so that not all probiotic strains are ideal for this application. In this sense, studies on the prevention of AFB1 contamination using highly competitive non-toxigenic strains of A. parasiticus and A. flavus have shown certain advantages, which implies that these mold strains may be potentially useful as agents directed at competitively excluding toxigenic strains [88].

The other mechanism that the probiotics have to counteract the toxic effects of AFB1 is through its metabolic degradation or biodegradation, which can be defined as the degradation or enzymatic transformation of the mycotoxin to less or non-toxic compounds. Biodegradation using microorganisms or their enzymes is one of the most studied strategies for AFB1 management; this method has been actively studied and can be a highly promising choice, since it is efficient, specific, and environmentally friendly to reduce or eliminate the possible contaminations of

however, for the fungi species, limitations such as long degradation time, non-adaptability to typical food fermentations, and culture pigmentation reduced their potential application in AFB1 detoxification [97], besides the use of fungi species is not economical because of the extraction process and lengthy incubation time [102]. Moreover, some of these fungi strains

Figure 2. Chemical molecular structure of AFB1, showing the two key sites responsible of its toxicity (taken from [93]).

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One of the first studies in this area was carried out in the 1960s, when it was evaluated the ability of about 1000 types of microorganisms to degrade aflatoxins [61]. Since then, many other studies have been done with several bacterial genera and strains; being the lactic acid bacteria (LAB), the most studied to detoxify AFB1; nevertheless, the ability of LABs to detoxify AFB1 has been attributed to their strong affinity and capacity to adsorb the toxin rather than

AFB1 degrading activity has been found in other bacteria genera, such as Mycobacterium fluoranthenivoran, Nocardia corynebacterioides (formerly Flavobacterium aurantiacum), Rhodococcus erythropolis, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Pseudomonas, as well as Bacillus licheniformis and B. subtilis [70, 71, 97, 107–110], which have demonstrated that their biodegradation activity is from enzymatic nature. For example, B. subtilis JSW-1, a bacterium isolated from soil samples, is able to degrade almost 70% of AFB1 within 72 h, as shown in Figure 3, and its degradation activity was likely due to the extracellular enzymes [26]. In other study, biological degradation of AFB1 by Rhodococcus erythropolis was evaluated in liquid cultures, in which dramatic reduction of AFB1 was observed after 48 and 72 h of incubation with just 17 and 3–6% of residual AFB1, respectively [97]. The ability to effectively biotransform AFB1 by Myxococcus fulvus has also been demonstrated. This bacterial isolate from deer feces was able to biotransform AFB1

Although probiotic bacterial strains are more desirable for AFB1 degradation, the use of whole cultures has less potential for large-scale utilization in the industry, so the use of fractions (cells

with degradation potential may also produce AFB1 under varying conditions [103].

for their degradation abilities [75, 81, 104–106].

by 80.7% after 72 h [111].

Figure 1. Effect of lactobacilli strains on: (a) the production of AFB1 and (b) the rate growth by Aspergillus section Flavi. Mean values based on quadruplicate data. \* Mean with a letter in common is not significantly different according to Tukey's test (p < 0.05) (modified from [83]).

AFB1 under mild conditions, without using harmful chemicals and without significant impairment of the nutritive value or palatability of the detoxified food or feed [68].

Studies on microbial degradation of AFB1 involve the use of microbial catabolic pathways, which act on one of the two key sites influencing its toxicity and potency, shown in Figure 2. The first site is the double bond in position 1,2 of the furofuran ring [41], and the second reactive group is the lactone ring in the coumarin moiety [89]. AFB1 is usually detoxified to a less toxic compound by opening the lactone ring, altering the coumarin structure, but it can also occur by removing the double bond from furan ring when there is a scission on it [2, 90, 91]. It is known that opening the lactone ring abolishes or decreases the fluorescence spectrum of AFB1; however, the cleavage of the furofuran ring does not change its fluorescence properties [92].

For AFB1 metabolic degradation, several microbial isolates have been studied and reported with different levels of degradation capacities, including bacteria and fungi strains [94–101];

Figure 2. Chemical molecular structure of AFB1, showing the two key sites responsible of its toxicity (taken from [93]).

however, for the fungi species, limitations such as long degradation time, non-adaptability to typical food fermentations, and culture pigmentation reduced their potential application in AFB1 detoxification [97], besides the use of fungi species is not economical because of the extraction process and lengthy incubation time [102]. Moreover, some of these fungi strains with degradation potential may also produce AFB1 under varying conditions [103].

One of the first studies in this area was carried out in the 1960s, when it was evaluated the ability of about 1000 types of microorganisms to degrade aflatoxins [61]. Since then, many other studies have been done with several bacterial genera and strains; being the lactic acid bacteria (LAB), the most studied to detoxify AFB1; nevertheless, the ability of LABs to detoxify AFB1 has been attributed to their strong affinity and capacity to adsorb the toxin rather than for their degradation abilities [75, 81, 104–106].

AFB1 degrading activity has been found in other bacteria genera, such as Mycobacterium fluoranthenivoran, Nocardia corynebacterioides (formerly Flavobacterium aurantiacum), Rhodococcus erythropolis, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Pseudomonas, as well as Bacillus licheniformis and B. subtilis [70, 71, 97, 107–110], which have demonstrated that their biodegradation activity is from enzymatic nature. For example, B. subtilis JSW-1, a bacterium isolated from soil samples, is able to degrade almost 70% of AFB1 within 72 h, as shown in Figure 3, and its degradation activity was likely due to the extracellular enzymes [26]. In other study, biological degradation of AFB1 by Rhodococcus erythropolis was evaluated in liquid cultures, in which dramatic reduction of AFB1 was observed after 48 and 72 h of incubation with just 17 and 3–6% of residual AFB1, respectively [97]. The ability to effectively biotransform AFB1 by Myxococcus fulvus has also been demonstrated. This bacterial isolate from deer feces was able to biotransform AFB1 by 80.7% after 72 h [111].

AFB1 under mild conditions, without using harmful chemicals and without significant impair-

Figure 1. Effect of lactobacilli strains on: (a) the production of AFB1 and (b) the rate growth by Aspergillus section Flavi. Mean values based on quadruplicate data. \* Mean with a letter in common is not significantly different according to

Studies on microbial degradation of AFB1 involve the use of microbial catabolic pathways, which act on one of the two key sites influencing its toxicity and potency, shown in Figure 2. The first site is the double bond in position 1,2 of the furofuran ring [41], and the second reactive group is the lactone ring in the coumarin moiety [89]. AFB1 is usually detoxified to a less toxic compound by opening the lactone ring, altering the coumarin structure, but it can also occur by removing the double bond from furan ring when there is a scission on it [2, 90, 91]. It is known that opening the lactone ring abolishes or decreases the fluorescence spectrum of AFB1; however, the cleavage of the furofuran ring does not change its fluorescence proper-

For AFB1 metabolic degradation, several microbial isolates have been studied and reported with different levels of degradation capacities, including bacteria and fungi strains [94–101];

ment of the nutritive value or palatability of the detoxified food or feed [68].

ties [92].

Tukey's test (p < 0.05) (modified from [83]).

154 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

Although probiotic bacterial strains are more desirable for AFB1 degradation, the use of whole cultures has less potential for large-scale utilization in the industry, so the use of fractions (cells

tract, being the duodenum the major site of absorption [115]. If the AFB1 is physically linked to the probiotic microorganism, its bioavailability is decreased, and therefore AFB1 uptake and its access to systemic circulation are also diminished. Adsorption is a physical process, in which the cell wall of microorganism binds the toxin by non-covalent weak bonds and some electrostatic attraction. This interaction appears to occur predominantly with polysaccharides,

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157

In vitro adsorption of AFB1 by probiotics has been described as a fast and reversible process, which is affected for many factors such as strain, toxin dose, temperature, pH, and microorganism concentration [72, 104, 118–120]. It has also been demonstrated that viability of some probiotic strain does not affect their absorption ability; thus, viable, heat-killed, and acid-killed

Several studies have been done in optimal laboratory conditions with several strains of probiotic microorganisms tested for their capacity to adsorb AFB1 and have been reported a wide range of genus, species, and strain-specific binding capacities [75, 81, 104, 116, 122–125], being the LABs and yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae those that have demonstrated the greatest ability to remove AFB1 by its adsorption [126]. Such is the case of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lb. rhamnosus LC-705, which have demonstrated to be very effective for removing AFB1, being able to remove up to 80% of the toxin instantly [104, 127]. On the other hand, yeasts have been reported to have similar mechanism as LAB in binding to AFB1 as a means of detoxification [68, 126], with studies that have shown that some strains of S. cerevisiae can adsorb up to

There is strong evidence in literature that some specific probiotics can adsorb AFB1 in vitro, but only limited information is available on adsorption in poultry in vivo. These in vivo studies are really important since in vitro studies have shown that there are relevant physiological conditions that the microorganisms encounter during their passage through the gastrointestinal tract, such as pH, intestinal mucus, and presence of bile, which modify the AFB1 adsorption and the stability of the AFB1-microorganism complex, either positively or negatively [122]. Although not many probiotic strains have been tested in vivo, the studies that have been conducted in poultry showed good results, such as in the in vivo study using the chicken duodenum loop technique, in which probiotic strain GG of L. rhamnosus removed as high as 54% of the added AFB1 and reduced its intestinal adsorption by 73% [73]. In this study, there was a difference in adsorption capacity when these strains were incubated in vitro, being the reduction of AFB1 even higher in vivo when compared to its adsorption in vitro. Bacillus probiotics have also been proved to remove or reduce AFB1 adsorption in the gastrointestinal tract at in vivo and in vitro conditions, showing the positive impact of these bacteria in preventing the harmful effects of aflatoxin in poultry with regard to performance, serum biochemistry, and immune responses [69]. However, when the capacity of Bacillus and Lactobacilli strains to control the stressful effects caused for AFB1 on chickens was compared, the Lactobacilli abilities resulted to be higher. This study shows that these probiotics can control the toxicity of AFB on poultry by improving humoral and cellular immune function, serum biochemical parameters, the process of protein synthesis, and reducing the anti-nutritional effects of AFB1 [65]. In a recent study, the effect of lactic acid bacteria and HSCAS on

peptidoglycan, and teichoic or lipoteichoic acids in the cell wall [116–118].

cells respond in a similar manner [118, 121].

90% of AFB1 [123, 128].

Figure 3. Time course of in vitro AFB1 degradation by B. subtilis JSW-1 at 30C for 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h in the dark. The initial concentration of AFB1 was 2.5 mg/mL. Values represent the mean SD (n = 3). Values with different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among them (modified from [26]).

or lysates) may be convenient, since they are substrate specific, effective, environmentally friendly, and possess better utilization in the food and feed industry [112].

In literature, there are many studies of AFB1 biodegradation carried out in laboratory conditions with many probiotic strains; however, the information in livestock and poultry about the effect of probiotics on AFB1 detoxification is very limited, especially in poultry science. This is important because in vitro studies are not always good indicators of the in vivo responses, since there are physiological parameters, such as pH, peristaltic movements, and gastric and intestinal secretions affecting their in vivo behavior. This can be observed in studies carried out with the genus Bacillus spp., of which some strains have been identified as GRAS organisms with probiotic properties in humans and animals as direct fed microbials (DFM). In the in vitro study, 3 of 69 Bacillus spp. candidates, which were evaluated, showed ability to biodegrade AFB1, based on growth as well as reduction of fluorescence and area of clearance around each colony [70]. However, when the biodegradation potential of these selected Bacillus spp. was tested in broiler chickens, no beneficial performance effects were showed. In addition, no significant performance differences were observed when compared with their respective control diets [113]. Therefore, there is still missing research to evaluate the effect of AFB1 degrading probiotics on growth performance, digestibility, immune function, and toxic residues in tissues and excreta in livestock production animals.

The other mechanism that the probiotics have to counteract the toxic effects of AFB1 is through its physical adsorption, which is in fact the most commonly used technique for reducing exposure to AFB1 [114]. It has been demonstrated that AFB1 is absorbed into the enterocytes by passive diffusion so, after its oral ingestion, AFB1 is efficiently absorbed in the intestinal tract, being the duodenum the major site of absorption [115]. If the AFB1 is physically linked to the probiotic microorganism, its bioavailability is decreased, and therefore AFB1 uptake and its access to systemic circulation are also diminished. Adsorption is a physical process, in which the cell wall of microorganism binds the toxin by non-covalent weak bonds and some electrostatic attraction. This interaction appears to occur predominantly with polysaccharides, peptidoglycan, and teichoic or lipoteichoic acids in the cell wall [116–118].

In vitro adsorption of AFB1 by probiotics has been described as a fast and reversible process, which is affected for many factors such as strain, toxin dose, temperature, pH, and microorganism concentration [72, 104, 118–120]. It has also been demonstrated that viability of some probiotic strain does not affect their absorption ability; thus, viable, heat-killed, and acid-killed cells respond in a similar manner [118, 121].

Several studies have been done in optimal laboratory conditions with several strains of probiotic microorganisms tested for their capacity to adsorb AFB1 and have been reported a wide range of genus, species, and strain-specific binding capacities [75, 81, 104, 116, 122–125], being the LABs and yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae those that have demonstrated the greatest ability to remove AFB1 by its adsorption [126]. Such is the case of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lb. rhamnosus LC-705, which have demonstrated to be very effective for removing AFB1, being able to remove up to 80% of the toxin instantly [104, 127]. On the other hand, yeasts have been reported to have similar mechanism as LAB in binding to AFB1 as a means of detoxification [68, 126], with studies that have shown that some strains of S. cerevisiae can adsorb up to 90% of AFB1 [123, 128].

or lysates) may be convenient, since they are substrate specific, effective, environmentally

Figure 3. Time course of in vitro AFB1 degradation by B. subtilis JSW-1 at 30C for 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h in the dark. The initial concentration of AFB1 was 2.5 mg/mL. Values represent the mean SD (n = 3). Values with different letters indicate

In literature, there are many studies of AFB1 biodegradation carried out in laboratory conditions with many probiotic strains; however, the information in livestock and poultry about the effect of probiotics on AFB1 detoxification is very limited, especially in poultry science. This is important because in vitro studies are not always good indicators of the in vivo responses, since there are physiological parameters, such as pH, peristaltic movements, and gastric and intestinal secretions affecting their in vivo behavior. This can be observed in studies carried out with the genus Bacillus spp., of which some strains have been identified as GRAS organisms with probiotic properties in humans and animals as direct fed microbials (DFM). In the in vitro study, 3 of 69 Bacillus spp. candidates, which were evaluated, showed ability to biodegrade AFB1, based on growth as well as reduction of fluorescence and area of clearance around each colony [70]. However, when the biodegradation potential of these selected Bacillus spp. was tested in broiler chickens, no beneficial performance effects were showed. In addition, no significant performance differences were observed when compared with their respective control diets [113]. Therefore, there is still missing research to evaluate the effect of AFB1 degrading probiotics on growth performance, digestibility, immune function, and toxic resi-

The other mechanism that the probiotics have to counteract the toxic effects of AFB1 is through its physical adsorption, which is in fact the most commonly used technique for reducing exposure to AFB1 [114]. It has been demonstrated that AFB1 is absorbed into the enterocytes by passive diffusion so, after its oral ingestion, AFB1 is efficiently absorbed in the intestinal

friendly, and possess better utilization in the food and feed industry [112].

significant differences (p < 0.05) among them (modified from [26]).

156 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

dues in tissues and excreta in livestock production animals.

There is strong evidence in literature that some specific probiotics can adsorb AFB1 in vitro, but only limited information is available on adsorption in poultry in vivo. These in vivo studies are really important since in vitro studies have shown that there are relevant physiological conditions that the microorganisms encounter during their passage through the gastrointestinal tract, such as pH, intestinal mucus, and presence of bile, which modify the AFB1 adsorption and the stability of the AFB1-microorganism complex, either positively or negatively [122]. Although not many probiotic strains have been tested in vivo, the studies that have been conducted in poultry showed good results, such as in the in vivo study using the chicken duodenum loop technique, in which probiotic strain GG of L. rhamnosus removed as high as 54% of the added AFB1 and reduced its intestinal adsorption by 73% [73]. In this study, there was a difference in adsorption capacity when these strains were incubated in vitro, being the reduction of AFB1 even higher in vivo when compared to its adsorption in vitro. Bacillus probiotics have also been proved to remove or reduce AFB1 adsorption in the gastrointestinal tract at in vivo and in vitro conditions, showing the positive impact of these bacteria in preventing the harmful effects of aflatoxin in poultry with regard to performance, serum biochemistry, and immune responses [69]. However, when the capacity of Bacillus and Lactobacilli strains to control the stressful effects caused for AFB1 on chickens was compared, the Lactobacilli abilities resulted to be higher. This study shows that these probiotics can control the toxicity of AFB on poultry by improving humoral and cellular immune function, serum biochemical parameters, the process of protein synthesis, and reducing the anti-nutritional effects of AFB1 [65]. In a recent study, the effect of lactic acid bacteria and HSCAS on detoxification of AFB was evaluated in broiler chickens. The results showed that LAB or HSCAS supplementation improved the growth performance, digestibility, and immune function of birds, reducing deleterious effects and tissue residues of AFB1; however, the effect of LAB resulted to be more effective than HSCAS, which indicates a possible mechanism of biodegradation of the toxin by the probiotics [129].

the administration of PVPP in the diet [136–139]. However, the cost of those polymers would

Biopolymers are generally complex indigestible carbohydrates, non-toxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable, such as cellulose, cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, glucomannans, peptidoglycans, and chitosan. They have been widely used as a promising biosorbents for the removal of various heavy metal ions and dyes [140], but recently cellulosic polymers and chitosan have been demonstrated to have ability to adsorb AFB1 [24, 141]. According to the in vitro results, both cellulosic polymers and chitosan were able to bind other important mycotoxins for poultry industry besides AFB1, which is a clear advantage over inorganic adsorbents since they are very effective in preventing aflatoxicosis, but their efficacy against mycotoxins such as zearalenone, ochratoxin, and trichothecenes is limited [17]. These biopolymers also pose multilayer porous structure filled with openings and channels that provide huge volume per sorbent surface unit, which is favorable in the adsorption process. Concerning to chitosan, different molecular weights, deacetylation degree, and cross-linked degree have to be tested for their AFB1 adsorption properties, because these characteristics might show different

The results on the efficacy of polymers in sequestering mycotoxins are highly promising, although this field is still in its infancy and further research is needed. Furthermore, in vivo studies are needed to confirm the effectiveness of these materials against AFB1 toxic effects, since results in the past have indicated that there is great variability in the efficacy of adsorbing materials in vivo, even though the compounds may show potential adsorption capacity of the

1 National Autonomous University of Mexico-Superior Studies Faculty at Cuautitlan (UNAM-FESC), Multidisciplinary Research Unit L5 (Pharmaceutical Development Testing

[1] Hussein HS, Brasel JM. Toxicity, metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on humans and

[2] Adebo O, Njobeh P, Gbashi S, Nwinyi O, Mavumengwana V. Review on microbial degradation of aflatoxins. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2017;57(15):

2 Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA

, Billy M. Hargis<sup>2</sup> and Guillermo Tellez2

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\*

be a limiting factor for practical applications.

adsorptive capacity against this mycotoxin [24].

, Daniel Hernandez-Patlan<sup>1</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: gtellez@uark.edu

animals. Toxicology. 2001;167(2):101-134

Laboratory), Cuautitlan Izcalli, Mexico

mycotoxin in vitro [22].

Author details

Bruno Solis-Cruz<sup>1</sup>

References

3208-3217
