*2.1.1. Risk to aquaculture*

**Figure 2.** Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed commodities worldwide in 2017.

mycotoxins risk (80%) in Asia comparatively to other continents [47].

**Figure 1.** Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed surveyed in 2016.

94 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

According to the Biomin (An animal nutrition company) survey of 2017, 96% of all samples contaminated with at least one mycotoxins however, 75% samples contained two or more mycotoxins (**Figure 2**). However, survey of mycotoxins in poultry feed depicted that twothirds (66%) poultry feed samples contained two or more mycotoxins and noted the highest The tendency and the economic need to replace the expensive fishmeal (an animal-derived proteins) with the cost-effective plant-based protein sources, has increased the impact of mycotoxins contamination in aquaculture feeds [48]. Mycotoxins have negative impact not only on the performance and health of terrestrial livestock species but it can also be lethal for aquaculture species [49, 50]. Mycotoxins effects even become more important in aquaculture sector due to the escalating cost of fishmeal and the necessity to pinpoint and use more costeffective protein sources such as plant protein or other plant based products. Toxic fungal metabolites that probably affect the aquaculture species are produced mainly by Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species. Toxins produce by these fungal species are known to be carcinogenic (e.g., AFLA, OTA, FUM), hepatotoxic (e.g., AFLA), nephrotoxic (e.g., OTA), estrogenic (e.g., ZEN), dermatotoxic (e.g., trichothecenes) and immunosuppressive (e.g., AFLA, OTA and T-2 toxin).

According to the latest Biomin survey of 2107, it was found that Fusarium mycotoxins were the most prevalent mycotoxin worldwide among the other mycotoxins (AFLA, OTA, ZEN, DON, FUM and T-2 toxins) followed by AFLA. Analysis were performed in 8345 plant meal samples including corn, corn DDGS, corn gluten meal, wheat, wheat bran, rice, rice bran and soybean meal for detection of mycotoxins collected from different regions all over the world [47, 51, 52]. Corn gluten meal and corn DDGS which are commonly used in aquaculture feed were found highly contaminated with DON and FUM.

Some marine species (especially rainbow trout and *Litopenaeus vannamei*) are known to be sensitive for FUM that may cause variation in sphingolipid metabolism and inducing cancer [53–55]. FUM obstruct the sphinganine (sphingosine) N-acyl transferase (ceramide synthase), a key enzyme in lipid metabolism, resulting in the disruption of this pathway. DON, was particularly found most prevalent mycotoxins in rainbow trout (*Oncorhynchus mykiss*) responsible for decreases in growth, feed intake, feed efficiency and energy utilization [56].

Co-occurrence of mycotoxin was also noted in plant meals commonly used in aquaculture potentially leading to synergistic or additive effects. Approximately, 74% samples were contaminated with two or more mycotoxins as depicted by latest Biomin survey (2017) that can lead to significant economic impacts in the aquaculture sector [47].


**Table 1.** Worldwide contamination of mycotoxins in food commodities (2017). **2.2. Mycotoxin's effect in poultry**

the effect of coccidiosis on their flocks.

**2.3. Impact of mycotoxins in livestock**

work as a barrier between pathogen and bodies of bird [57].

effects between mycotoxins.

Prevalence of coccidiosis is common disease in broilers responsible for big loss (US\$5–6 bil

Factors responsible for mycotoxins' intensification of coccidiosis include mycotoxin contami

nation in feed, higher immunosuppressive effects on broilers, and the possible synergistic

Aftereffects of FUM and DON toxins can be worse even if present in small concentration allowed by US and European guidelines. Permissible levels set by US FDA for FUM and DON are 30 and 10 ppm for poultry feed, respectively. However, allowed limits adapted by European regulations for FUM (20 ppm) and DON (5 ppm) toxins in poultry feeds are somewhat more stringent relatively to American regulations. FUM and DON may have some synergistic effects known to inhibit some vital functions of cells, interrupt intestinal cells that

Mycotoxins residues in food of animal origin like milk, meat (tissues) and eggs are frequently reported in every region. AFLA not only evidenced as hepato-toxic but it also have some other toxic effects like carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic properties for humans as well as animals. Evidence of AFLA residues has been found so far in milk, meat tissue and eggs. Most importantly AFLA residues frequently found in milk as AFLA M1 and M2, which are the metabolites of AFLA B1 and B2. These toxic metabolites are produced when dairy animals fed on AFLA contaminated feed. It was noticed that concentrated animal feed (e.g., cotton seed cake, maize oil cake) was mostly found contaminated with huge level of mycotoxins. Conversion of AFLA B1 and B2 into the AFLA M1 and M2 in dairy animals are linearly depen

dent on the intake of contaminated feed and the toxin elimination totally from animal body usually finished 3 days after withdrawal of contaminated feed. The ratio between ingested and excreted AFLA is usually 1–3%, but it can be 6% presuming worst case scenarios [58

Carry-over (or residues) of mycotoxins especially AFLA in milk is highly focused as it's rou

According to the latest mycotoxin survey it was noted that the risk levels are certainly elevated in many regions of the world. Globally, the average risk level was 62%, ranged from 46% (in Middle East) to 80% (in Asia). In light of the latest mycotoxin results, Dr. Timothy Jenkins, Mycotoxin Risk Management Product Manager at Biomin states that "livestock producers and stakeholders

Approximately, two-thirds contaminated samples contained more than one mycotoxins in animal feed and it observed that particular type of mycotoxins and its concentration vary due

tinely used by everyone in every part of the world especially children's and infants [61].

should be vigilant in monitoring their feed and feed ingredients for mycotoxins," [62].

to climate, weather patterns and seasonal shifts, etc."

lion) globally each year. Coccidiosis is a renowned influencing factor for necrotic enteritis and predicted to cost poultry sector US\$3 billion per annum. Existence of mycotoxins in poultry feeds aggravates coccidiosis in poultry; even its small amount can increase Eimeria infection and disease sternness in Poultry. Stakeholders in poultry sector always looking to minimize

Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins and Its Detoxification Strategies

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–60].
