**2. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins**

Contamination of food commodities with fungus is commonly seen in every part of the world and it diverge from region to region depending upon the food products and environmental conditions like temperature & humidity. The diversity of fungi species grown on food products under various ecological conditions were observed that produce particular mycotoxins but it can occur singly or in multiple (co-occurrence). The co-occurrence of mycotoxins can affect both the production of mycotoxin and the toxicity of the contaminated material. Mycotoxins risk not only threatens the people living in tropical climate countries but it also be hazardous for people of temperate climates countries like United States of America and Europe.

commodities, include: aflatoxins (AFLA), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxyniva-

Foodstuffs are very prone to contaminants like bacteria and fungi in the pre-harvest and postharvest stages especially, during storage when executed in poor conditions. These facts could be a cause of mycotoxins contamination in feeds and foods that pose serious health threat to animals and humans. Exposure of mycotoxins is a worldwide concern due to the globalization of food trade and its toxic nature. Some of these mycotoxins have hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, immunosuppressive, genotoxic, teratogenic, and/or carcinogenic effects in human and animals. Consequently, mycotoxins have been a major concern of food regulatory authorities in all over the world about its exposure and hazardous nature in human and animals. Occurrence of multiple mycotoxins (co-occurrence) now gains much attention worldwide owing to its more toxic capacity (synergistic) as compared to single mycotoxin. According to the Biomin mycotoxins survey of 2015, more than 50% contaminated samples contained multiple mycotoxins in food and feed. Furthermore, co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins increased from 2015 to 2016 and risk of mycotoxins is more heightened in Asia comparatively to other continents because of the favorable environmental conditions [1]. Frequency of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium fungal species comprising DON, FUM, ZEN are more frequent and co-occurrence of these mycotoxins can result severe detrimental impacts. The prevalence of mycotoxins in animal feed are associated with lower performance, poor growth, health and reproductive issues and higher medical costs for both animals and humans. Foods of animal origin are essential part of normal diet of everybody therefore; there is a need to assess co-

occurrence of mycotoxins in animal feed and its counteracting strategies.

toxins can result extensive damage to the liver, kidney and even induce cancer.

and humans due to their toxic effects [9, 10].

**2. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins**

The worldwide contamination of agricultural commodities (crops, foods and feeds) with mycotoxins is a global concern that poses huge threat to animals and humans health. Contamination of foods by multiple mycotoxins not only has negative impact on health but also for global food security. Animal ingestion of contaminated feed with a variety of myco-

Mycotoxin contamination occurs widely in feedstuffs of plant origin, especially in cereals, seeds, fruits, fodder, agricultural feed or food intended for animal or human consumption [2–6]. Human beings are exposed by the effects of these toxins when used the foods of animal origin like milk, meat and eggs [7]. Furthermore, mycotoxins lead to massive economic losses, including loss of livestock production, loss of forage crops and feeds, and loss of human and animal life [8]. At the moment, different mycotoxins have been identified globally, and food regulatory authorities focused mainly on the potent and frequently present mycotoxins that have proven lethal. In continent Asia, ZEA, DON and FUM mycotoxins produced by fungal specie Fusarium are frequently present in animal feed elicit great health concerns to animals

Contamination of food commodities with fungus is commonly seen in every part of the world and it diverge from region to region depending upon the food products and environmental

lenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM) and T-toxin (T-2).

92 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

During the last 10 years, incidence of multiple mycotoxins (AFLA, OTA, ZEN, DON and FUM) produced by different fungal species particularly Fusarium and Aspergillus genus have been reported in cereals from different countries [11–19]. Natural co-occurrence of mycotoxins in cereal-based infant products was also observed from Tunisia, where 32% samples were detected contaminated with multiple mycotoxins [20]. It was noticed that Fusarium fungal species can produce different mycotoxins simultaneously, and their co-occurrence became an important issue in the past years for risk assessment [21–23], these multiple toxins can have additive, antagonist or synergic effects [24, 25].

Global occurrence of mycotoxins in cereals and processed food products indicated that five major mycotoxins namely AFLA, OTA, ZEN, DON, FUM are mostly found during the past 10 years in these food stuffs. FUM mycotoxins were maximally detected (61%) in these cereals and processed foods, DON were identified in 58% samples and AFLA were noticed in 55% samples. However, contamination of ZEN and OTA in these food items were 46% and 29%, respectively [26]. It was also noticed that contamination of mycotoxins in processed food products were relatively less than the cereal grains. More than one mycotoxin can be produced by single of numerous fungal species and it may found in different combinations in food stuffs which may exert additive, antagonistic and synergistic effect in animals and humans.

Multiple occurrence (co-occurrence) of mycotoxins in European region revealed that AFLA and OTA mycotoxins were mostly found (24%) whereas the prevalence of other mycotoxins was comparatively less (Approx. 10%). Similarly, the co-occurrence of AFLA and OTA was highly detected (35%) in African countries and the occurrence of other combinations was comparatively fewer (29%). Conversely, in Asia FUM and AFLA combination was highly noticed (78%) and the prevalence of similar combination (FUM +AFLA) was found (50%) in South America, while FUM +ZEA was second most observed combination (25%) among other mycotoxins. In short, co-occurrence of AFLA and FUM mycotoxins was highly observed in Asia, Africa and South America [1, 15, 27–44].

Co-occurrence of different mycotoxins was noted in Solvak and observed the highest correlation between DON and Nivalenol toxins. On the other hand, no correlation between ZEA and DON was noticed [45].

According to the latest Biomin mycotoxin Survey (2016), DON and FUM are the most commonly found mycotoxins in feedstuffs, analyzed in 4027 animal feed samples and feed ingredients collected from >50 countries. The major food items collected in this survey include corn, wheat, barley, rice, soybean meal, corn gluten meal, dried distillers grains (DDGS) and silage, that are used in feed among others [46].

Out of all samples, DON were detected in 73%, FUM were found 64 and 53% samples were contaminated by ZEN. Whereas, contamination of AFLA were detected in 25%, T-2 toxins in 18 and 12% samples were found contaminated with OTA, shown in **Figure 1**.

Worldwide contamination of mycotoxins in food commodities are represented in **Table 1**

Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins and Its Detoxification Strategies

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76562

95

It observed that, 84% of animal feed samples contaminated with single mycotoxins however

Multiple mycotoxin contamination may responsible of additional problems, like synergistic effects that exaggerate the more deleterious consequences for animals. The combination of DON and ZEN is reported synergistic pairing as stated by Dr. Timothy Jenkins who is product manager mycotoxins at animal nutrition company Biomin: "The effect of ZEN on repro-

The tendency and the economic need to replace the expensive fishmeal (an animal-derived proteins) with the cost-effective plant-based protein sources, has increased the impact of mycotoxins contamination in aquaculture feeds [48]. Mycotoxins have negative impact not only on the performance and health of terrestrial livestock species but it can also be lethal for aquaculture species [49, 50]. Mycotoxins effects even become more important in aquaculture sector due to the escalating cost of fishmeal and the necessity to pinpoint and use more costeffective protein sources such as plant protein or other plant based products. Toxic fungal metabolites that probably affect the aquaculture species are produced mainly by Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species. Toxins produce by these fungal species are known to be carcinogenic (e.g., AFLA, OTA, FUM), hepatotoxic (e.g., AFLA), nephrotoxic (e.g., OTA), estrogenic (e.g., ZEN), dermatotoxic (e.g., trichothecenes) and immunosuppressive (e.g.,

According to the latest Biomin survey of 2107, it was found that Fusarium mycotoxins were the most prevalent mycotoxin worldwide among the other mycotoxins (AFLA, OTA, ZEN, DON, FUM and T-2 toxins) followed by AFLA. Analysis were performed in 8345 plant meal samples including corn, corn DDGS, corn gluten meal, wheat, wheat bran, rice, rice bran and soybean meal for detection of mycotoxins collected from different regions all over the world [47, 51, 52]. Corn gluten meal and corn DDGS which are commonly used in aquaculture feed

Some marine species (especially rainbow trout and *Litopenaeus vannamei*) are known to be sensitive for FUM that may cause variation in sphingolipid metabolism and inducing cancer [53–55]. FUM obstruct the sphinganine (sphingosine) N-acyl transferase (ceramide synthase), a key enzyme in lipid metabolism, resulting in the disruption of this pathway. DON, was particularly found most prevalent mycotoxins in rainbow trout (*Oncorhynchus mykiss*) respon-

Co-occurrence of mycotoxin was also noted in plant meals commonly used in aquaculture potentially leading to synergistic or additive effects. Approximately, 74% samples were contaminated with two or more mycotoxins as depicted by latest Biomin survey (2017) that can

sible for decreases in growth, feed intake, feed efficiency and energy utilization [56].

lead to significant economic impacts in the aquaculture sector [47].

(BIOMIN World Mycotoxin survey, January to September, 2017).

more than 50% samples contaminated with several mycotoxins [1].

ductive systems can sometimes be worsened by the presence of DON."

**2.1. Occurrence of mycotoxins in plant meals**

were found highly contaminated with DON and FUM.

*2.1.1. Risk to aquaculture*

AFLA, OTA and T-2 toxin).

**Figure 1.** Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed surveyed in 2016.

According to the Biomin (An animal nutrition company) survey of 2017, 96% of all samples contaminated with at least one mycotoxins however, 75% samples contained two or more mycotoxins (**Figure 2**). However, survey of mycotoxins in poultry feed depicted that twothirds (66%) poultry feed samples contained two or more mycotoxins and noted the highest mycotoxins risk (80%) in Asia comparatively to other continents [47].

**Figure 2.** Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in food and feed commodities worldwide in 2017.

Worldwide contamination of mycotoxins in food commodities are represented in **Table 1** (BIOMIN World Mycotoxin survey, January to September, 2017).

It observed that, 84% of animal feed samples contaminated with single mycotoxins however more than 50% samples contaminated with several mycotoxins [1].

Multiple mycotoxin contamination may responsible of additional problems, like synergistic effects that exaggerate the more deleterious consequences for animals. The combination of DON and ZEN is reported synergistic pairing as stated by Dr. Timothy Jenkins who is product manager mycotoxins at animal nutrition company Biomin: "The effect of ZEN on reproductive systems can sometimes be worsened by the presence of DON."
