**3. Counteracting strategies**

Dr. Timothy Jenkins stated that "Avoidance of contaminated food & feed and attention to storage conditions are logical approaches to reducing the mycotoxin risk."

Prevention and detection is the reliable approach with regular application of mycotoxin absorbents to minimize its lethal effects [62].

#### **3.1. Decontamination or detoxification of mycotoxins**

To minimize the level of mycotoxins in food and feed, several efforts have been made both In-vitro (in raw material and processed food) and In-vivo (within animal body). Generally, mycotoxin removal strategies can be divided in two phases, pre-harvest treatment to control or inhibit the growth of fungus and post-harvest remediation of contaminated commodities. However, preventive approaches such as plant disease management, good agricultural practices and adequate storage conditions might control the mycotoxin levels in food commodities but are not always sufficient to eradicate mycotoxins completely. Therefore, economically suitable and practically applicable approaches are required to decontaminate or detoxify the mycotoxins in food chain [66–68].

Ideally, the detoxification strategy should have the following properties: (1) inactivate, destroy or remove mycotoxin, (2) non-toxic, (3) easy or handy, (4) economical, (5) retain the nutritive value. In addition to these properties, the process should be field oriented and inexpensive.

Degradation or detoxification of toxic fungal metabolites may be an ideal approach to remove or decontaminate the toxins form food and feed products if the process not alters its nutritional composition. As most mycotoxins exhibit a high chemical stability, development of degradation or decontamination methods compatible with food quality standards is a challenging task and researchers still working to optimize the more efficient and appropriate process. Over the last decades biological, chemical and physical strategies for the degradation and decontamination of mycotoxins were investigated extensively [67, 69, 70]. Physical tactics mainly include washing, heating and irradiation were studied. Different mycotoxin binders (organic and mineral) were tried for the removal of toxic metabolites and considered the more effective removal process of mycotoxins from foodstuffs. More recently biological, enzymatic and chemical degradation procedures were also investigated and found effective. Chemical degradation processes comprise, application of acids, bases, chlorinating agents, oxidizing agents, formaldehyde and ammoniation were studied in food commodities [67, 70].

### **3.2. Physical methods of degradation**

**2.4. Climate change and its impact on mycotoxins**

98 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

**3. Counteracting strategies**

absorbents to minimize its lethal effects [62].

**3.1. Decontamination or detoxification of mycotoxins**

Temperature and humidity are two main factors that boost up the fungal growth and production of mycotoxins. As the world climate fluctuating, the pattern of mycotoxins contamination also vicissitudes, accordingly. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported (2014) the different global warming projections and predict that global temperatures may increase by up to 4.8°C in the year 2100. Climate change will definitely affect the agriculture sector, variations in temperature and humidity may affect the efficacy of pesticide and fungicide applications, life-cycle of insects that promote fungal infections of crops may alter as well. On the other hand, fungal species may displace by other more aggressive or virulent fungi due to change in climate. If temperature begins to rise in upcoming years then the highest mycotoxin risks will be observed not only in countries with tropical climates but also in countries with temperate climates, such as parts of Europe and the United States of America [63–65].

Dr. Timothy Jenkins stated that "Avoidance of contaminated food & feed and attention to stor-

Prevention and detection is the reliable approach with regular application of mycotoxin

To minimize the level of mycotoxins in food and feed, several efforts have been made both In-vitro (in raw material and processed food) and In-vivo (within animal body). Generally, mycotoxin removal strategies can be divided in two phases, pre-harvest treatment to control or inhibit the growth of fungus and post-harvest remediation of contaminated commodities. However, preventive approaches such as plant disease management, good agricultural practices and adequate storage conditions might control the mycotoxin levels in food commodities but are not always sufficient to eradicate mycotoxins completely. Therefore, economically suitable and practically applicable approaches are required to decontaminate or detoxify the mycotoxins in food chain [66–68]. Ideally, the detoxification strategy should have the following properties: (1) inactivate, destroy or remove mycotoxin, (2) non-toxic, (3) easy or handy, (4) economical, (5) retain the nutritive value. In addition to these properties, the process should be field oriented and inexpensive.

Degradation or detoxification of toxic fungal metabolites may be an ideal approach to remove or decontaminate the toxins form food and feed products if the process not alters its nutritional composition. As most mycotoxins exhibit a high chemical stability, development of degradation or decontamination methods compatible with food quality standards is a challenging task and researchers still working to optimize the more efficient and appropriate process. Over the last decades biological, chemical and physical strategies for the degradation and decontamination of mycotoxins were investigated extensively [67, 69, 70]. Physical tactics mainly include washing, heating and irradiation were studied. Different mycotoxin binders (organic and mineral) were tried for the removal of toxic metabolites and considered the more

age conditions are logical approaches to reducing the mycotoxin risk."

Removal of mycotoxins by physical approaches comprised sorting, dehulling, cleaning, milling, heating and irradiation or combinatorial methods. Organic, inorganic or mineral binders are also being tried for the decontamination of mycotoxins, although these adsorbing binders have some promising features, some may have adverse nutritional effects due to binding capacity of minerals and vitamins [71–82].

Technical plasma is a latest and innovative physical approach for the removal of mycotoxins from food and feed. Latest application of cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) in demolition of plant pathogens indicated that the process is appropriate for sensitive biological stuffs. Different types of plasma were used effectively for inhibition of fungal growth and for the decontamination of mycotoxins [83–88]. Recently, studies indicated that CAPP capable to degrade the mycotoxins in cereals and grains very efficiently [89].

#### **3.3. Chemical methods of degradation**

Degradation of mycotoxins can also be attained via chemical reactions. Different chemicals processes like hydrolysis, ammoniation, ozonation, peroxidation, and the use of hydrochloric acid, ascorbic acid, sodium bisulfite, hydrogen peroxide, formaldehyde, ammonia, ammonium hydroxide and are reported in different studies to decontaminate the mycotoxins in food [90]. However, chemical degradation does not fulfill the recommended criteria of FAO because some chemicals produce toxic metabolites and reduce the nutritional values of foodstuffs [91–93].
