**2.2. Mycotoxin's effect in poultry**

Prevalence of coccidiosis is common disease in broilers responsible for big loss (US\$5–6 billion) globally each year. Coccidiosis is a renowned influencing factor for necrotic enteritis and predicted to cost poultry sector US\$3 billion per annum. Existence of mycotoxins in poultry feeds aggravates coccidiosis in poultry; even its small amount can increase Eimeria infection and disease sternness in Poultry. Stakeholders in poultry sector always looking to minimize the effect of coccidiosis on their flocks.

Factors responsible for mycotoxins' intensification of coccidiosis include mycotoxin contamination in feed, higher immunosuppressive effects on broilers, and the possible synergistic effects between mycotoxins.

Aftereffects of FUM and DON toxins can be worse even if present in small concentration allowed by US and European guidelines. Permissible levels set by US FDA for FUM and DON are 30 and 10 ppm for poultry feed, respectively. However, allowed limits adapted by European regulations for FUM (20 ppm) and DON (5 ppm) toxins in poultry feeds are somewhat more stringent relatively to American regulations. FUM and DON may have some synergistic effects known to inhibit some vital functions of cells, interrupt intestinal cells that work as a barrier between pathogen and bodies of bird [57].

#### **2.3. Impact of mycotoxins in livestock**

**Continents**

**Occurrence of Mycotoxins**

**AFLA**

**%** 

**Average** 

**%** 

**Average** 

**%** 

**Average** 

**%** 

**Average** 

**%** 

**Average** 

**%** 

**Average** 

**contaminated** 

**of** 

**contaminated** 

**of** 

**contaminated** 

**of** 

**contaminated** 

**of** 

**contaminated** 

**of** 

**contaminated** 

**of** 

**samples**

**positives** 

**samples**

**positives** 

**samples**

**positives** 

**samples**

**positives** 

**samples**

**positives** 

**samples**

**positives** 

**(ppb)**

**(ppb)**

**(ppb)**

**(ppb)**

**(ppb)**

**(ppb)**

**South and** 

25

8

49

118

84

898

26

39

77

3227

4

3

**Central** 

**America**

**North** 

4

19

51

226

78

1112

3

41

60

1829

7

5

**America**

**Europe**

**Asia** **Middle** 

13

4

53

134

69

719

11

25

68

873

30

2

**East**

**Africa** **Table 1.**

Worldwide contamination of mycotoxins in food commodities (2017).

12

19

38

130

71

510

1

26

66

1221

14

4

34

63

48

202

78

788

3

55

82

1026

27

8

18

4

52

54

72

448

35

37

50

582

27

9

**ZEN**

**DON**

**T-2**

**FUM**

**OTA**

96 Mycotoxins - Impact and Management Strategies

Mycotoxins residues in food of animal origin like milk, meat (tissues) and eggs are frequently reported in every region. AFLA not only evidenced as hepato-toxic but it also have some other toxic effects like carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic properties for humans as well as animals. Evidence of AFLA residues has been found so far in milk, meat tissue and eggs. Most importantly AFLA residues frequently found in milk as AFLA M1 and M2, which are the metabolites of AFLA B1 and B2. These toxic metabolites are produced when dairy animals fed on AFLA contaminated feed. It was noticed that concentrated animal feed (e.g., cotton seed cake, maize oil cake) was mostly found contaminated with huge level of mycotoxins. Conversion of AFLA B1 and B2 into the AFLA M1 and M2 in dairy animals are linearly dependent on the intake of contaminated feed and the toxin elimination totally from animal body usually finished 3 days after withdrawal of contaminated feed. The ratio between ingested and excreted AFLA is usually 1–3%, but it can be 6% presuming worst case scenarios [58–60]. Carry-over (or residues) of mycotoxins especially AFLA in milk is highly focused as it's routinely used by everyone in every part of the world especially children's and infants [61].

According to the latest mycotoxin survey it was noted that the risk levels are certainly elevated in many regions of the world. Globally, the average risk level was 62%, ranged from 46% (in Middle East) to 80% (in Asia). In light of the latest mycotoxin results, Dr. Timothy Jenkins, Mycotoxin Risk Management Product Manager at Biomin states that "livestock producers and stakeholders should be vigilant in monitoring their feed and feed ingredients for mycotoxins," [62].

Approximately, two-thirds contaminated samples contained more than one mycotoxins in animal feed and it observed that particular type of mycotoxins and its concentration vary due to climate, weather patterns and seasonal shifts, etc."

#### **2.4. Climate change and its impact on mycotoxins**

Temperature and humidity are two main factors that boost up the fungal growth and production of mycotoxins. As the world climate fluctuating, the pattern of mycotoxins contamination also vicissitudes, accordingly. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported (2014) the different global warming projections and predict that global temperatures may increase by up to 4.8°C in the year 2100. Climate change will definitely affect the agriculture sector, variations in temperature and humidity may affect the efficacy of pesticide and fungicide applications, life-cycle of insects that promote fungal infections of crops may alter as well. On the other hand, fungal species may displace by other more aggressive or virulent fungi due to change in climate. If temperature begins to rise in upcoming years then the highest mycotoxin risks will be observed not only in countries with tropical climates but also in countries with temperate climates, such as parts of Europe and the United States of America [63–65].

effective removal process of mycotoxins from foodstuffs. More recently biological, enzymatic and chemical degradation procedures were also investigated and found effective. Chemical degradation processes comprise, application of acids, bases, chlorinating agents, oxidizing

Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins and Its Detoxification Strategies

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76562

99

Removal of mycotoxins by physical approaches comprised sorting, dehulling, cleaning, milling, heating and irradiation or combinatorial methods. Organic, inorganic or mineral binders are also being tried for the decontamination of mycotoxins, although these adsorbing binders have some promising features, some may have adverse nutritional effects due to binding

Technical plasma is a latest and innovative physical approach for the removal of mycotoxins from food and feed. Latest application of cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) in demolition of plant pathogens indicated that the process is appropriate for sensitive biological stuffs. Different types of plasma were used effectively for inhibition of fungal growth and for the decontamination of mycotoxins [83–88]. Recently, studies indicated that CAPP capable

Degradation of mycotoxins can also be attained via chemical reactions. Different chemicals processes like hydrolysis, ammoniation, ozonation, peroxidation, and the use of hydrochloric acid, ascorbic acid, sodium bisulfite, hydrogen peroxide, formaldehyde, ammonia, ammonium hydroxide and are reported in different studies to decontaminate the mycotoxins in food [90]. However, chemical degradation does not fulfill the recommended criteria of FAO because some chemicals produce toxic metabolites and reduce the nutritional values of foodstuffs [91–93].

Physical and chemical degradation methods have some confines such as losses in the nutritional value, limited efficacy and safety issues, in addition of these shortcomings costly equipment required to accomplish these techniques. Biological degradations are considered superb as it works under environment friendly conditions. Microbial degradations of mycotoxins are also preferred, since it can be a specific, efficient, environment friendly, irreversible and non-toxic. Degradation of mycotoxins using fungi are not considered a best choice because of its complicated procedures and long incubation time. However, bacterial degradation of mycotoxins has promising applications due to the high degradation rate and wide reaction conditions. Detoxification process using probiotic bacteria is also trying, which can be directly applied in the foodstuffs. Furthermore, the use of enzymes appears to be an auspicious choice for detoxification of mycotoxins [94, 95].

The current chapter contributes to increase the knowledge concerning the co-occurrence of mycotoxins in food commodities. It was noticed that co-occurrence of mycotoxins were exist

to degrade the mycotoxins in cereals and grains very efficiently [89].

agents, formaldehyde and ammoniation were studied in food commodities [67, 70].

**3.2. Physical methods of degradation**

capacity of minerals and vitamins [71–82].

**3.3. Chemical methods of degradation**

**3.4. Biological degradation**

**4. Conclusions**
