Preface

**Section 3 Aflatoxicosis and Control in Poultry 123**

**in Their Treatment 125**

**Polymers 149**

**VI** Contents

Guillermo Tellez

Chapter 7 **Aflatoxins: Their Toxic Effect on Poultry and Recent Advances**

Bruno Solis-Cruz, Daniel Hernandez-Patlan, Billy M. Hargis and

Yasir Allah Ditta, Saima Mahad and Umar Bacha

Chapter 8 **Control of Aflatoxicosis in Poultry Using Probiotics and**

Food and feed contamination by toxigenic fungi accompanied by the production of various mycotoxins is a serious concern worldwide because it seriously compromises health and the economy. This is more devastating in Africa due to climate change dynamics, food habits, poor perception, and the lack of public awareness and educational programs. Mycotoxins are the most important chronic dietary risk factor, ahead of synthetic contaminants, plant toxins, and pesticide residues, with aflatoxin B1 being the most potent naturally occurring carcinogen. As such, their presence in food and feed seriously compromises food and feed safety; thus, there is a need for their regulation and control.

Aflatoxin contamination of food and feed affects a wide variety of industries, including nu‐ trition, agriculture, health, and trade. From a historical viewpoint, one can notice that over the past decades the interest of research, development cooperation agencies, or international health bodies to the problem of aflatoxin has received an unequal attention. Resurfacing in the international news in the 1990s, it faded away to once again reemerge due to increased attention from research funders and development actors to food safety issues and nutrition. In 2019 there is a crucial need for high-level discussion on food safety, including aflatoxin contamination. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO), and World Trade Organization (WTO) organized an International Forum on Food Safety and Trade (23–24 April 2019. Geneva). This conference continued the discussions from the Addis Conference (12–13 February 2019. Addis Ababa) to address specifically the trade-related aspects and challenges of food safety.

However, collaboration between different actors is still challenging, not least because of the complexity of the contamination sources that occur at pre-harvest and post-harvest levels. Many initiatives and surveys have focused on how bad the situation is in some African coun‐ tries and for some value chains. Less attention has been paid to understanding the reasons why it is so difficult to devise possible solutions that mitigate aflatoxin contamination to scale.

This book offers an opportunity for African scientists to present their current research re‐ sults and demonstrates the great diversity of research topics. Section 1 covers the socioeco‐ nomic impact of mycotoxins, Section 2 looks into prevention and control of aflatoxins, and Section 3 discusses aflatoxicosis and control in poultry. The book contributes to the ambi‐ tious objectives of MYTOX-SOUTH, which was launched in 2017. This initiative intends to support the capacity of (mainly) African partners in their research on mycotoxin contamina‐ tion and how it affects not only food safety but also food security. The well-structured mul‐ tidisciplinary partnership of MYTOX-SOUTH deals with all known aspects of mycotoxins and toxigenic mold issues. The final goal is to contribute to formulating adequate strategies and solutions for different stakeholders who are affected by mycotoxin contamination.

It is hoped that the information contained in this book will be valuable to all and serve as an aid to students, researchers, and professionals involved in the field of mycotoxicology, as well as policy makers and regulatory bodies. Reports that try to model and forecast the im‐ pact of climate change on the African continent predict that many African regions will un‐ dergo periods of drought. For instance, East Africa will experience a hotter but also a more humid climate. This will exacerbate the situation in Africa, where the occurrence of aflatoxin is already more persistent than anywhere else across the globe.

Hence it is important to give more visibility to recent research on mycotoxins from an Afri‐ can perspective. The book is also an answer to the 2018 recommendations of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JEFCA recommended that ef‐ forts to reduce aflatoxin exposure using valid intervention strategies continue, including the development of effective, sustainable, and universally applicable pre-harvest prevention strategies. Rice, wheat, and sorghum need to be considered in future risk management activ‐ ities for aflatoxins. JEFCA recommended further research and efforts to alleviate stunting, taking aflatoxin exposure into consideration as a possible contributing factor. It recommend‐ ed that if additional epidemiological studies are conducted, they should be prospective studies that are performed in high-exposure areas (e.g., in Africa). It advises on the develop‐ ment of surveillance programs for regions for which little information on the occurrence of aflatoxins currently exists, carefully considering the impact of these programs on food secur‐ ity. I would like to sincerely thank my colleague Mr. Francois Stepman for his valuable con‐ tribution as co-editor and also Prof. Gabriel Adegoke of the University of Ibadan, Prof. Hussaini Makun of the Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria, and lastly Dr. Fru Felix of the University of Johannesburg for reviewing some of the chapters published herein. Finally, my profound gratitude goes to all authors who contributed to the book.

#### **Patrick Berka Njobeh**

**Section 1**

**Socio-economic Impact of Mycotoxins**

Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology Faculty of Science University of Johannesburg, South Africa

#### **Francois Stepman**

The European Alliance on Agricultural Knowledge for Development/KEYSTEP bvba Paris, France **Socio-economic Impact of Mycotoxins**

It is hoped that the information contained in this book will be valuable to all and serve as an aid to students, researchers, and professionals involved in the field of mycotoxicology, as well as policy makers and regulatory bodies. Reports that try to model and forecast the im‐ pact of climate change on the African continent predict that many African regions will un‐ dergo periods of drought. For instance, East Africa will experience a hotter but also a more humid climate. This will exacerbate the situation in Africa, where the occurrence of aflatoxin

Hence it is important to give more visibility to recent research on mycotoxins from an Afri‐ can perspective. The book is also an answer to the 2018 recommendations of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). JEFCA recommended that ef‐ forts to reduce aflatoxin exposure using valid intervention strategies continue, including the development of effective, sustainable, and universally applicable pre-harvest prevention strategies. Rice, wheat, and sorghum need to be considered in future risk management activ‐ ities for aflatoxins. JEFCA recommended further research and efforts to alleviate stunting, taking aflatoxin exposure into consideration as a possible contributing factor. It recommend‐ ed that if additional epidemiological studies are conducted, they should be prospective studies that are performed in high-exposure areas (e.g., in Africa). It advises on the develop‐ ment of surveillance programs for regions for which little information on the occurrence of aflatoxins currently exists, carefully considering the impact of these programs on food secur‐ ity. I would like to sincerely thank my colleague Mr. Francois Stepman for his valuable con‐ tribution as co-editor and also Prof. Gabriel Adegoke of the University of Ibadan, Prof. Hussaini Makun of the Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria, and lastly Dr. Fru Felix of the University of Johannesburg for reviewing some of the chapters published herein.

Finally, my profound gratitude goes to all authors who contributed to the book.

The European Alliance on Agricultural Knowledge for Development/KEYSTEP bvba

**Patrick Berka Njobeh**

Faculty of Science

**Francois Stepman**

Paris, France

Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology

University of Johannesburg, South Africa

is already more persistent than anywhere else across the globe.

VIII Preface

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**The Socio-Economic Impact of Mycotoxin**

**The Socio-Economic Impact of Mycotoxin** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79328

The proliferated contamination of agricultural commodities by mycotoxins and their attendant toxic effects on humans and animals which consume such commodities constitutes a major concern to food safety and security. These highly toxic food contaminants are produced by various filamentous fungi species that are ubiquitous in nature, however, favourable climatic conditions in the tropics favour their proliferation in these regions. Africa, by virtue of its location along the equator makes it highly accommodative to proliferation of mycotoxigenic fungi species, as such, it is the most affected of all the continents. Other factors such as poverty, and climate change further complicates the mycotoxin situation on the continent. Economic impact due to mycotoxin contamination in Africa is thus alarming. The effects of mycotoxins can in fact be felt in the overall health of humans and animals, sustainable development, food security and safety, damage to the African agricultural export brand, negatively impacting Africa's self-sustainability and increased dependence on foreign aid, not excluding high cost of research, mitigation and regulation of the prevalence of these toxins in African countries. This book chapter presents an exhaustive appraisal of the socio-economic impact of mycotoxins on Africa. Our observations herein are expected to stimulate policy makers, as well as, all stakeholders along the food supply chain to identify critical areas of collaboration and strengthen alliances in order to ameliorate the effects of these toxicants on the continent of Africa,

**Keywords:** mycotoxins, socio-economic impact, Africa, fungi, immunosuppression,

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Contamination in Africa**

**Contamination in Africa**

Sefater Gbashi, Ntakadzeni Edwin Madala,

Sefater Gbashi, Ntakadzeni Edwin Madala,

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Ifeoluwa Adekoya, Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo and

Ifeoluwa Adekoya, Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo and

Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre,

Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre,

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79328

Patrick Berka Njobeh

Patrick Berka Njobeh

**Abstract**

and the world at large.

hepatotoxic, socio-economic impact, health impact

#### **Chapter 1 Provisional chapter**

#### **The Socio-Economic Impact of Mycotoxin Contamination in Africa The Socio-Economic Impact of Mycotoxin Contamination in Africa**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79328

Sefater Gbashi, Ntakadzeni Edwin Madala, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre, Ifeoluwa Adekoya, Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo and Patrick Berka Njobeh Sefater Gbashi, Ntakadzeni Edwin Madala, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre, Ifeoluwa Adekoya, Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo and Patrick Berka Njobeh

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.79328

#### **Abstract**

The proliferated contamination of agricultural commodities by mycotoxins and their attendant toxic effects on humans and animals which consume such commodities constitutes a major concern to food safety and security. These highly toxic food contaminants are produced by various filamentous fungi species that are ubiquitous in nature, however, favourable climatic conditions in the tropics favour their proliferation in these regions. Africa, by virtue of its location along the equator makes it highly accommodative to proliferation of mycotoxigenic fungi species, as such, it is the most affected of all the continents. Other factors such as poverty, and climate change further complicates the mycotoxin situation on the continent. Economic impact due to mycotoxin contamination in Africa is thus alarming. The effects of mycotoxins can in fact be felt in the overall health of humans and animals, sustainable development, food security and safety, damage to the African agricultural export brand, negatively impacting Africa's self-sustainability and increased dependence on foreign aid, not excluding high cost of research, mitigation and regulation of the prevalence of these toxins in African countries. This book chapter presents an exhaustive appraisal of the socio-economic impact of mycotoxins on Africa. Our observations herein are expected to stimulate policy makers, as well as, all stakeholders along the food supply chain to identify critical areas of collaboration and strengthen alliances in order to ameliorate the effects of these toxicants on the continent of Africa, and the world at large.

**Keywords:** mycotoxins, socio-economic impact, Africa, fungi, immunosuppression, hepatotoxic, socio-economic impact, health impact

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
