Author details

utility, and further that not every application requires a complicated solution. Lastly, the tSDI layers, along with the basic concept of suppression difficulty, could be broadened to include factors such as safety zones, egress routes, and the impacts of other disturbances on fire

The work presented in this chapter represents incremental improvement in wildfire decision support by integrating information on suppression difficulty with information on demand for protection of important fire-susceptible assets. By summarizing tSDI within PODs, and further by summarizing area-adjusted tSDI values in different analysis units, we are able to pinpoint areas of high concern in relation to suppression opportunity and risk transmission. We identified a case study landscape where a high density of human development in areas with increased fire hazard presents significant forest and fire management challenges. More importantly, we were able to work with local managers to assimilate this information into ongoing assessment and planning processes. As of this writing, the layers we developed on tSDI, dWUI, and F2F are being incorporated into a geodatabase that will be delivered to the Arapaho and Roosevelt National Forests to

In summary, we developed techniques to study the opportunity and viability of conducting fire suppression to manage fire risks at high priority locations, and to facilitate targeted identification of those high priority areas. Results can help fire managers understand how and where fire management activities could be planned and implemented to mitigate fire threats. In this chapter, we demonstrated not only proof-of-concept, but also results that delivered actionable information to local fire managers. We aim to continue to improve techniques and relevance of decision support through additional science-management partner-

Christopher D O'Connor shared a Python script to calculate tSDI and provided rulesets to update fuel models. Alex Masarie helped with data visualization. This research was partially funded by the Colorado Agriculture Experimental Station project COL0050 and by the 14-JV-11221636-029 project between the USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station and Colorado State University. The National Fire Decision Support Center also supported this effort.

facilitate landscape prioritization and support real-time fire incident response.

ships, and hope this chapter inspires other fire scientists to do the same.

behavior and resistance to control [45, 46].

6. Conclusion

60 Environmental Risks

Acknowledgements

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Matthew P Thompson<sup>1</sup> \*, Zhiwei Liu<sup>2</sup> , Yu Wei<sup>2</sup> and Michael D Caggiano<sup>2</sup>

\*Address all correspondence to: mpthompson02@fs.fed.us


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[36] High Park Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) Report. 2012. Available from: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE\_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2\_061214.pdf

**Chapter 4**

**Provisional chapter**

**Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes**

**Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes** 

**Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial**

**Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial** 

John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and

John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78329

**Photography**

**Photography**

Jabulani R. Gumbo

Jabulani R. Gumbo

**Abstract**

rivers

**Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District,**

**Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District,** 

Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (*Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha* and *Bauhinia galpinii*). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there. **Keywords:** downstream, upstream, aerial orthophoto, riparian vegetation, damming of

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78329


**Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78329

John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R. Gumbo John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R. Gumbo

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78329

#### **Abstract**

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services/FS\_Efforts/forests2faucets.shtml

2013;294:208-216

64 Environmental Risks

Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (*Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha* and *Bauhinia galpinii*). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there.

**Keywords:** downstream, upstream, aerial orthophoto, riparian vegetation, damming of rivers

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
