Water Handling Challenges Affecting Hygiene and Health

**55**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

will be outlined.

**1. Introduction**

Countries

*Josephine Treacy*

Drinking Water Treatment

**Keywords:** drinking water, water source treatment pollution

Drinking water remains inaccessible to 1.1 million people globally. Safe and readily available drinking water is important for public health. Drinking water can be used for many purposes including cooking, drinking, washing, personal hygiene, irrigation, recreational and industrial use. Water can be classified aided by the 'environmental quality objective' for what it is used for and the 'environmental quality standard' for what is the quality of water for its purpose. Improved water supply, sanitation and better management of water resources can boost countries' economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction. The sources of drinking water in developing countries can range from surface water, groundwater, spring water, saline water, bottled water and harvested rainwater [1]. Access to drinking water is monitored by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United

and Challenges in Developing

Safe drinking water remains inaccessible to many humans in the developing countries. Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas

#### **Chapter 5**

## Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries

*Josephine Treacy*

#### **Abstract**

Safe drinking water remains inaccessible to many humans in the developing countries. Research continuously innovates to develop efficient and cheap methods to sustain clean water for developing countries. Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.

**Keywords:** drinking water, water source treatment pollution

#### **1. Introduction**

Drinking water remains inaccessible to 1.1 million people globally. Safe and readily available drinking water is important for public health. Drinking water can be used for many purposes including cooking, drinking, washing, personal hygiene, irrigation, recreational and industrial use. Water can be classified aided by the 'environmental quality objective' for what it is used for and the 'environmental quality standard' for what is the quality of water for its purpose. Improved water supply, sanitation and better management of water resources can boost countries' economic growth and can contribute greatly to poverty reduction. The sources of drinking water in developing countries can range from surface water, groundwater, spring water, saline water, bottled water and harvested rainwater [1]. Access to drinking water is monitored by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the Joint Monitoring Programme for water supply and sanitation (JMP) [2].

Efforts to develop efficient, economical and technologically sound methods to produce clean drinking water for developing countries have increased worldwide [3].

**Figures 1** and **2** highlight the importance of scientists to develop and sustain technologies to improve drinking water quality due to the percentage of society lacking suitable drinking water [4]. Water is a key variable within sustainable development goals in terms of environmental, social and economic initiatives as highlighted by the United Nations in 2014 [5]. The discussion on the role of water

**57**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

as one of the key challenges for future water needs [6].

and eggs and larvae of parasitic worms [6].

high levels of naturally occurring arsenic [8].

pesticides and fertilisers [7].

biodegradability [10].

for sanitation and hygiene in the 'water development report 2015' emphasises cost

As well as accounting for the lack of physical water accessibility due to drought, 'distance from a water supply' and polluted water can all affect drinking water accessibility. Water quality issues due to anthropogenic and natural pollution can affect the amount of water available for use. Both surface and groundwater can be contaminated by both anthropogenic and natural contaminations. Microbiology and chemical contaminants in drinking water can cause acute and chronic health effects. Contamination can also affect the aesthetic properties of water systems. The contaminants include:

• Pathogens—disease-causing organisms that include bacteria, amoebas, viruses

• Harmful chemicals from human activities and industrial wastes such as

• Chemicals and minerals from the natural environment, such as arsenic, common salts and fluorides. In Bangladesh, for example, 1.4 million tube wells have

• Some non-harmful contaminants may influence the taste, smell, colour and turbidity of water and make it unacceptable to the consumer; its examples

The physiochemical properties of contaminants of water that can impact its toxicology in water include size, density compared to water, charge, solubility, volatility, polarity, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, boiling point, chemical reactivity and

When deciding on the water supply for drinking water purposes an understanding of the stresses on the water source is important. Seasonal variation of the water source is also important to understand in areas such as water level and water table levels and sanitation contamination trends [11]. Throughout this chapter emphasis on the multi-barrier approach to maintain clean water will be described. All parts of the multi-barrier approach, including source selection, treatment type, transport to consumer and storage if necessary are all important to control, to minimise the risk of contamination. The water safety plans (WSPs) manual published in 2009 by the World Health Organization (WHO) guides the multi-barrier approach for the maintenance of good quality drinking water [12, 13]. When deciding on the drinking water supply and subsequence treatment, the WHO safety plan manual encourages people to think of the best treatment taking into consideration local factors. In the International Water Association (IWA), Bonn Charter emphasises the 'provision of clean safe drinking

The multi-barrier approach examines water in detail from source to tap and aids in maintaining the quality of water at each stage. The lesser the number of steps in treatment, the cleaner the water source and the nearer the consumer is to the source are challenges in drinking water management. Other variables to consider include

include zinc, iron, particulate matter and humic material [9].

**2.1 From source to consumer and the multi-barrier approach**

water which has the trust of consumers' as a focal point [14] (**Figure 3**).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

**2. The importance of treating water**

#### **Figure 1.**

*Proportion of population using an improved drinking water source (WHO 2010) [4].*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Global representation of developing countries (WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme [4]).*

for sanitation and hygiene in the 'water development report 2015' emphasises cost as one of the key challenges for future water needs [6].

### **2. The importance of treating water**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

supply and sanitation (JMP) [2].

Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the Joint Monitoring Programme for water

Efforts to develop efficient, economical and technologically sound methods to produce clean drinking water for developing countries have increased worldwide [3]. **Figures 1** and **2** highlight the importance of scientists to develop and sustain technologies to improve drinking water quality due to the percentage of society lacking suitable drinking water [4]. Water is a key variable within sustainable development goals in terms of environmental, social and economic initiatives as highlighted by the United Nations in 2014 [5]. The discussion on the role of water

**56**

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 1.**

*Global representation of developing countries (WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme [4]).*

*Proportion of population using an improved drinking water source (WHO 2010) [4].*

As well as accounting for the lack of physical water accessibility due to drought, 'distance from a water supply' and polluted water can all affect drinking water accessibility. Water quality issues due to anthropogenic and natural pollution can affect the amount of water available for use. Both surface and groundwater can be contaminated by both anthropogenic and natural contaminations. Microbiology and chemical contaminants in drinking water can cause acute and chronic health effects. Contamination can also affect the aesthetic properties of water systems. The contaminants include:


The physiochemical properties of contaminants of water that can impact its toxicology in water include size, density compared to water, charge, solubility, volatility, polarity, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, boiling point, chemical reactivity and biodegradability [10].

#### **2.1 From source to consumer and the multi-barrier approach**

When deciding on the water supply for drinking water purposes an understanding of the stresses on the water source is important. Seasonal variation of the water source is also important to understand in areas such as water level and water table levels and sanitation contamination trends [11]. Throughout this chapter emphasis on the multi-barrier approach to maintain clean water will be described. All parts of the multi-barrier approach, including source selection, treatment type, transport to consumer and storage if necessary are all important to control, to minimise the risk of contamination. The water safety plans (WSPs) manual published in 2009 by the World Health Organization (WHO) guides the multi-barrier approach for the maintenance of good quality drinking water [12, 13]. When deciding on the drinking water supply and subsequence treatment, the WHO safety plan manual encourages people to think of the best treatment taking into consideration local factors. In the International Water Association (IWA), Bonn Charter emphasises the 'provision of clean safe drinking water which has the trust of consumers' as a focal point [14] (**Figure 3**).

The multi-barrier approach examines water in detail from source to tap and aids in maintaining the quality of water at each stage. The lesser the number of steps in treatment, the cleaner the water source and the nearer the consumer is to the source are challenges in drinking water management. Other variables to consider include

**Figure 3.** *The multi-barrier approach [15].*

prevention of reentering of contaminants at storage and distribution stages of the process [16]. Indicator parameter studies of facial coliforms have been used in Rangoon Burma of Southeast Asia for storage and distribution control management [16].

#### **2.2 Abstraction points**

The source supply is known as the abstraction point. A large priority of water management in developing countries is to supply water from a source that requires little or no treatment rather than a source that requires treatment. Risk management to ensure that the source is protected from pollution is also a priority [17]. The baseline of the water source physiochemical, organic and inorganic composition and its monitoring is a challenge [18]. Supply provision of water source under different conditions such as seasonal factors is important to understand. The types of water abstraction points consist of boreholes, open wells, surface water river and lakes, saline waters and brackish waters. An example of the range of drinking water abstraction types utilised in developing countries can be seen in **Table 1** [19].

Abstraction water point in certain areas will change at different times of the year corresponding with the dry season and the wet season. Boreholes where citizens dig down to find water would be popular in dry seasons and river water sampling, and the use would be popular in wet season. This is common in areas such as Francistown, Botswana, in South Africa. The Shashe river is used readily in the wet season as stated by a sister of the Cross and Passion order working in the Francistown area. Another source of water for future investigation would be bottled water; bottled water can be bought in from other countries. Bottled water can be classified as natural mineral water, and water source bottled from an underground aquifer still or aerated protected from pollution has no treatment [20]. Issues with

**59**

**Figure 4.**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

*Abstraction drinking water supply and % use from case study Ndola [19].*

confidence in quality, shelf life, storage including refrigeration and transportation to consumer can be a challenge. The cost of transporting bottled water can be costly.

**use**

Shallow well 68.6 75.4 82.3 Borehole 11.0 4.3 6.5 River 0.7 0.7 1.6 Spring 0.7 0.7 1.6 Wetlands 0 0 1.6

**Domestic water % use**

9.7 9.4 1.6

**Irrigation % use**

Rainwater harvesting can be considered a free source of water. Rainwater precipitation can be very large in certain parts of the globe. Global precipitation climatology, for the period 1979–2017 in millimetres/day, can be visually seen in **Figure 4** [21]. This data represents the precipitation estimate from version 2.3 global precipitation climatology project (GPCP) SSAI/NASA GSFC project data [21].

Different technologies can be used for rainwater harvesting such as roof water which can be collected through gutters and pipes into storage tanks [22]. Other water harvesting systems that have been developed include farm ponds, community ponds, wells, recharge pits micro-irrigation sprinklers and check dams' low cost water harvest systems [23]. The advantage of farm ponds and check dams is that water can be stored in the rainy season which can be utilized during the dry season. Recharge pit systems can be used to recharge groundwater aquifers in the rainy season. The Vidarbha region of India has successfully deployed farm pond and pit macro-irrigation systems. Positive outcomes of these technologies include crop irrigation improvements and raised water tables, subsequently increasing the avail-

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

**Source type Drinking water %** 

**2.3 Rainwater (water harvesting)**

A combinations of above Due to seasonal factors

**Table 1.**

ability of drinking water sources. [23].

*Global precipitation image provided by David Bolvin (SSAI/NASA GSFA [21]).*


*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

#### **Table 1.**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

prevention of reentering of contaminants at storage and distribution stages of the process [16]. Indicator parameter studies of facial coliforms have been used in Rangoon Burma of Southeast Asia for storage and distribution control management [16].

The source supply is known as the abstraction point. A large priority of water management in developing countries is to supply water from a source that requires little or no treatment rather than a source that requires treatment. Risk management to ensure that the source is protected from pollution is also a priority [17]. The baseline of the water source physiochemical, organic and inorganic composition and its monitoring is a challenge [18]. Supply provision of water source under different conditions such as seasonal factors is important to understand. The types of water abstraction points consist of boreholes, open wells, surface water river and lakes, saline waters and brackish waters. An example of the range of drinking water abstraction types utilised in developing countries can be seen in **Table 1** [19]. Abstraction water point in certain areas will change at different times of the year corresponding with the dry season and the wet season. Boreholes where citizens dig down to find water would be popular in dry seasons and river water sampling, and the use would be popular in wet season. This is common in areas such as Francistown, Botswana, in South Africa. The Shashe river is used readily in the wet season as stated by a sister of the Cross and Passion order working in the Francistown area. Another source of water for future investigation would be bottled water; bottled water can be bought in from other countries. Bottled water can be classified as natural mineral water, and water source bottled from an underground aquifer still or aerated protected from pollution has no treatment [20]. Issues with

**58**

**2.2 Abstraction points**

*The multi-barrier approach [15].*

**Figure 3.**

*Abstraction drinking water supply and % use from case study Ndola [19].*

confidence in quality, shelf life, storage including refrigeration and transportation to consumer can be a challenge. The cost of transporting bottled water can be costly.

#### **2.3 Rainwater (water harvesting)**

Rainwater harvesting can be considered a free source of water. Rainwater precipitation can be very large in certain parts of the globe. Global precipitation climatology, for the period 1979–2017 in millimetres/day, can be visually seen in **Figure 4** [21]. This data represents the precipitation estimate from version 2.3 global precipitation climatology project (GPCP) SSAI/NASA GSFC project data [21].

Different technologies can be used for rainwater harvesting such as roof water which can be collected through gutters and pipes into storage tanks [22]. Other water harvesting systems that have been developed include farm ponds, community ponds, wells, recharge pits micro-irrigation sprinklers and check dams' low cost water harvest systems [23]. The advantage of farm ponds and check dams is that water can be stored in the rainy season which can be utilized during the dry season. Recharge pit systems can be used to recharge groundwater aquifers in the rainy season. The Vidarbha region of India has successfully deployed farm pond and pit macro-irrigation systems. Positive outcomes of these technologies include crop irrigation improvements and raised water tables, subsequently increasing the availability of drinking water sources. [23].

From **Figure 4**, one can see that the estimated rainfall in Africa, Asia and South America is in the range of 4–10 millimetres/day, which can be utilised for water harvesting for the purpose of drinking water, irrigation and washing and cooking. The data in **Figure 4** is based on a combination of passive microwave and active radar sensors.

Rainwater can be a significant source of water for an individual, a family or a community. Rainwater harvesting is widely practised in Maldives, India and Sri Lanka [24]. It is very beneficial for tsunami-affected regions where piped water infrastructures are severely damaged [25].

Other areas where rainwater harvesting has been developed include Bhutan and Bangladesh as an alternative source due to the high levels of naturally occurring arsenic in groundwaters [26]. The advantage of using rainwater as a water source is a great benefit to a community if distance from a water supply in rural areas makes water inaccessible.

Rainwater harvesting can levitate issues with storm water and minimise diffuse sources of pollution due to storm water. Harvested rainwater is a water source during the drought season if stored correctly. The treatment of the rainwater if needed would involve point-of-use (POU) treatment technologies which will be discussed later in this chapter.

Globally, sub-Saharan Africa has the largest number of water-scarce countries [27]. Unfortunately, these countries also do not have a large availability of clean drinking water due to urbanisation and industrialisation impact on water quality [27]. Most of the African continent relies on rainfall and surface water for their drinking water supply. Experts estimate that between 75 and 250 million people will live in water-stressed areas of Africa by 2030 [28]. Pollution of rainwater can be due to the transboundary pollution and anthropogenic and naturally occurring pollution such as bird droppings [29]. The key benefits of using rainwater include local water security and reduced central treatment infrastructure needs for water supplies.

#### **2.4 Desalination**

Processes such as distillation and evaporation can be used as a means of desalination [30]. Other processes include freeze distillation and reverse osmosis. Freezing salt makes crystals of fresh water form and grow leaving a concentrated brine solution behind [31]. Reverse osmosis involves movement of water from a high concentration to a low concentration. Membrane systems can also be used [32]. The major advantage of desalination is that when chlorination is used as a disinfectant, there is a lower risk of forming disinfectant by-products as the water has a lower organic content [32]. Many developing countries have coastal areas which enable sea water and brackish water following desalination to be used as a drinking water source. The largest challenge to the use of desalination technologies is the cost of the technologies used [33]. Research has shown that cost of desalination can be minimised by using solar and wind energy as an energy supply for reverse osmosis [34].

#### **3. Pollution and abstraction point**

The minimising of pollution must be linked with point and diffuse sources of pollution. Categories of pollution risk include point sources and diffuse sources of pollution. Diffuse source of pollution is harder to control and monitor. Diffuse sources of pollution include dry and wet atmospheric deposition. Storm water infiltration from waste storage and septic tanks is also a major concern [35].

**61**

**Figure 5.**

*Soil types globally [37].*

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

Watershed protection refers to the activities preformed on a topographical and hydrological water area in order to protect water quality within a catchment. As an example for drinking water the topography of the watershed basin is studied linking with surface water runoff entering a river or stream. Soil types should be investigated in terms of soil characteristics and water permeability and sand silt and clay composition [36]. Water-permeable soil can impact on the movement of surface water downwards to groundwater causing a transfer of pollution (**Figure 5**). Aquifer protection groundwater quality is dependent on the geology of the subsurface material of which water is drawn. Also, understanding the transport and fate of contaminants requires a study of groundwater geology if any aquifer protection zone treatment is in place. Soil horizon characteristics should also be reviewed. Arsenic is a common naturally occurring metal problem in developing countries as can be seen in **Figure 6**. Hydraulic pump control to prevent intrusion of sea water is an important

variable to control in coastal areas in terms of fresh water aquifer use [38].

the pollutants that may be natural or anthropogenic [41].

with floods and the construction industry.

Waste disposal and lack of proper sanitation practices can affect the quality of surface waters and groundwaters. The principle component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis (FA) can be used to minimise the risk of water pollution. The PCA and FA create an inventory of variables that can be an impact on water quality [39]. **Figure 7** shows the PCA and FA flow approach in relation to surface water management [40]. Point and diffuse sources and source-receptor mechanisms are also important to understand. Source-receptor mechanisms are important to control and understand, linking to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of

The types of waste issues to monitor relate to the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries, oil refining, textile industry, leather industry, fine chemical manufacture, animal and human solid and liquid waste and sediment issues linked

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

infrastructures are severely damaged [25].

radar sensors.

water inaccessible.

later in this chapter.

supplies.

**2.4 Desalination**

From **Figure 4**, one can see that the estimated rainfall in Africa, Asia and South America is in the range of 4–10 millimetres/day, which can be utilised for water harvesting for the purpose of drinking water, irrigation and washing and cooking. The data in **Figure 4** is based on a combination of passive microwave and active

Rainwater can be a significant source of water for an individual, a family or a community. Rainwater harvesting is widely practised in Maldives, India and Sri Lanka [24]. It is very beneficial for tsunami-affected regions where piped water

Other areas where rainwater harvesting has been developed include Bhutan and Bangladesh as an alternative source due to the high levels of naturally occurring arsenic in groundwaters [26]. The advantage of using rainwater as a water source is a great benefit to a community if distance from a water supply in rural areas makes

Rainwater harvesting can levitate issues with storm water and minimise diffuse sources of pollution due to storm water. Harvested rainwater is a water source during the drought season if stored correctly. The treatment of the rainwater if needed would involve point-of-use (POU) treatment technologies which will be discussed

Globally, sub-Saharan Africa has the largest number of water-scarce countries [27]. Unfortunately, these countries also do not have a large availability of clean drinking water due to urbanisation and industrialisation impact on water quality [27]. Most of the African continent relies on rainfall and surface water for their drinking water supply. Experts estimate that between 75 and 250 million people will live in water-stressed areas of Africa by 2030 [28]. Pollution of rainwater can be due to the transboundary pollution and anthropogenic and naturally occurring pollution such as bird droppings [29]. The key benefits of using rainwater include local water security and reduced central treatment infrastructure needs for water

Processes such as distillation and evaporation can be used as a means of desalination [30]. Other processes include freeze distillation and reverse osmosis. Freezing salt makes crystals of fresh water form and grow leaving a concentrated brine solution behind [31]. Reverse osmosis involves movement of water from a high concentration to a low concentration. Membrane systems can also be used [32]. The major advantage of desalination is that when chlorination is used as a disinfectant, there is a lower risk of forming disinfectant by-products as the water has a lower organic content [32]. Many developing countries have coastal areas which enable sea water and brackish water following desalination to be used as a drinking water source. The largest challenge to the use of desalination technologies is the cost of the technologies used [33]. Research has shown that cost of desalination can be minimised by using

The minimising of pollution must be linked with point and diffuse sources of pollution. Categories of pollution risk include point sources and diffuse sources of pollution. Diffuse source of pollution is harder to control and monitor. Diffuse sources of pollution include dry and wet atmospheric deposition. Storm water infiltration from waste storage and septic tanks is also a major concern [35].

solar and wind energy as an energy supply for reverse osmosis [34].

**3. Pollution and abstraction point**

**60**

Watershed protection refers to the activities preformed on a topographical and hydrological water area in order to protect water quality within a catchment. As an example for drinking water the topography of the watershed basin is studied linking with surface water runoff entering a river or stream. Soil types should be investigated in terms of soil characteristics and water permeability and sand silt and clay composition [36]. Water-permeable soil can impact on the movement of surface water downwards to groundwater causing a transfer of pollution (**Figure 5**).

Aquifer protection groundwater quality is dependent on the geology of the subsurface material of which water is drawn. Also, understanding the transport and fate of contaminants requires a study of groundwater geology if any aquifer protection zone treatment is in place. Soil horizon characteristics should also be reviewed. Arsenic is a common naturally occurring metal problem in developing countries as can be seen in **Figure 6**. Hydraulic pump control to prevent intrusion of sea water is an important variable to control in coastal areas in terms of fresh water aquifer use [38].

Waste disposal and lack of proper sanitation practices can affect the quality of surface waters and groundwaters. The principle component analysis (PCA) and factor analysis (FA) can be used to minimise the risk of water pollution. The PCA and FA create an inventory of variables that can be an impact on water quality [39]. **Figure 7** shows the PCA and FA flow approach in relation to surface water management [40]. Point and diffuse sources and source-receptor mechanisms are also important to understand. Source-receptor mechanisms are important to control and understand, linking to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the pollutants that may be natural or anthropogenic [41].

The types of waste issues to monitor relate to the pharmaceutical and agricultural industries, oil refining, textile industry, leather industry, fine chemical manufacture, animal and human solid and liquid waste and sediment issues linked with floods and the construction industry.

**Figure 5.** *Soil types globally [37].*

*Naturally occurring arsenic in a global perspective [1].*

**Figure 7.**

*Point and diffuse sources and seasonal factors and pollution control linking with PCA and FA [40].*

#### **4. Treatment technologies**

Any drinking water treatment technology focuses on source supply, treatment type, storage and transportation to customers. Conventional treatment methods in developed countries can be applied to developing countries. The basic drinking water treatment steps can be seen in **Figure 8**.

The first stage of treatment to produce drinking water involves screening the abstraction point water and passing through coarse filters. The water can then be kept in a storage tank where natural sedimentation occurs and natural ultraviolet light can break down pathogens. The next stage is the pre-chemical stage which can involve aeration, use of activated carbon and use of aluminium salts or iron salts. Aluminium salts are the more commonly used. The simplest coagulant is aluminium

**63**

forming.

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

sulphate Al2(SO4)3.14H2O known as alum. Aluminium sulphate salt is converted to an aluminium hydroxide complex in the water which is known as a polynuclear

The next stage of the treatment is sand filtration; enhanced filtration systems such as granular media filtration and disinfectant membranes are also readily used. The filtration process can remove excess pathogens and chemicals

The post-chemical stage involves disinfection of the water; disinfectants used include hypochlorous acid, ozone and chloride dioxide [47]. Many water utilities have moved to the use of multiple disinfectant rather than just chlorination. Advanced technology with the use of ultraviolet light to create free radicals which

The most common disinfectant used is chlorine (Cl2) which reacts with water

Cl2 + H2O = HCl + HOCl (1)

process [43]. The traditional view of coagulation is that it facilitates agglomeration of small colloidal particles into large particles of a size that can be physically removed. Dirt, chemicals and pathogens in the water attach to the aluminium hydroxide during the coagulation process. Dual coagulants, a hydrolysed metal salt and a low concentration of polyelectrolyte, can be used. The most common polyelectrolytes in water treatment consist of polydiallydimethyl ammonium chloride (polyDADMAC) and epichlorohydrin dimethylamine (epiDMA) [43]. Coagulation/flocculation technologies can also remove total organic carbon (TOC). High-charge-density cationic polymers bridge particles of the primary coagulations to form a floc to initiate the flocculation process. Sedimentation and decanting of the water occur at this stage, and the floc can fall out of the water phase. The gravity sedimentation removal of particles from water follows the coagulation/flocculation process. High-rate gravity sedimentation involves blasting flocculation using polymers. This process is commercially known as ACTIFLO process, microsand 70–100 μm is dosed together with the polymer forming a lamella [44]. The lamella settles out of the water clarifying the water [45]. In the dissolved air flotation (DAF) technique, part of the treated water is recycled under pressure to dissolve air in the water as part of the aeration process. The floc attaches to the air bubbles, moves to the top of the water and can be

7+ and in the presence of polyelectrolytes aids in the coagulation

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

species Al13O4(OH)24

*Drinking water treatment [42].*

**Figure 8.**

removed [45].

from the water [46].

can break down pathogens can also be used.

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

**Figure 8.** *Drinking water treatment [42].*

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

**62**

**Figure 6.**

**Figure 7.**

**4. Treatment technologies**

water treatment steps can be seen in **Figure 8**.

*Naturally occurring arsenic in a global perspective [1].*

Any drinking water treatment technology focuses on source supply, treatment type, storage and transportation to customers. Conventional treatment methods in developed countries can be applied to developing countries. The basic drinking

*Point and diffuse sources and seasonal factors and pollution control linking with PCA and FA [40].*

The first stage of treatment to produce drinking water involves screening the abstraction point water and passing through coarse filters. The water can then be kept in a storage tank where natural sedimentation occurs and natural ultraviolet light can break down pathogens. The next stage is the pre-chemical stage which can involve aeration, use of activated carbon and use of aluminium salts or iron salts. Aluminium salts are the more commonly used. The simplest coagulant is aluminium sulphate Al2(SO4)3.14H2O known as alum. Aluminium sulphate salt is converted to an aluminium hydroxide complex in the water which is known as a polynuclear species Al13O4(OH)24 7+ and in the presence of polyelectrolytes aids in the coagulation process [43]. The traditional view of coagulation is that it facilitates agglomeration of small colloidal particles into large particles of a size that can be physically removed. Dirt, chemicals and pathogens in the water attach to the aluminium hydroxide during the coagulation process. Dual coagulants, a hydrolysed metal salt and a low concentration of polyelectrolyte, can be used. The most common polyelectrolytes in water treatment consist of polydiallydimethyl ammonium chloride (polyDADMAC) and epichlorohydrin dimethylamine (epiDMA) [43]. Coagulation/flocculation technologies can also remove total organic carbon (TOC). High-charge-density cationic polymers bridge particles of the primary coagulations to form a floc to initiate the flocculation process. Sedimentation and decanting of the water occur at this stage, and the floc can fall out of the water phase. The gravity sedimentation removal of particles from water follows the coagulation/flocculation process. High-rate gravity sedimentation involves blasting flocculation using polymers. This process is commercially known as ACTIFLO process, microsand 70–100 μm is dosed together with the polymer forming a lamella [44]. The lamella settles out of the water clarifying the water [45]. In the dissolved air flotation (DAF) technique, part of the treated water is recycled under pressure to dissolve air in the water as part of the aeration process. The floc attaches to the air bubbles, moves to the top of the water and can be removed [45].

The next stage of the treatment is sand filtration; enhanced filtration systems such as granular media filtration and disinfectant membranes are also readily used. The filtration process can remove excess pathogens and chemicals from the water [46].

The post-chemical stage involves disinfection of the water; disinfectants used include hypochlorous acid, ozone and chloride dioxide [47]. Many water utilities have moved to the use of multiple disinfectant rather than just chlorination. Advanced technology with the use of ultraviolet light to create free radicals which can break down pathogens can also be used.

The most common disinfectant used is chlorine (Cl2) which reacts with water forming.

$$\text{Cl}\_2 + \text{H}\_2\text{O}^- = \text{HCl} + \text{HOCl} \tag{1}$$

Hypochlorous acid which is a weak acid can dissociate into hydrogen ion, H+ and hypochlorite ion OCl<sup>−</sup>:

$$\text{HOCl} \rightleftharpoons \text{H}^+ \star \text{OCl}^- \tag{2}$$

Both HOCl and OCl<sup>−</sup> can act as disinfectants [47].

Chlorine dosing is the best disinfectant as it can leave a residual in the water to aid disinfection. Ozone and ultraviolet light do not give a residual disinfectant in the water. Post-chemical treatment can also involve pH control. Fluorination can also be used as a post-chemical treatment in certain countries such as Ireland [47].

The water is then stored in reservoirs before being used. Residual disinfection in the storage facility is important to prevent contamination of the storage space. The network management is also very important, and residual disinfection is important to maintain water safety. Microbial slimes in the distribution system pipes can cause the development of waterborne viruses and bacteria and invertebrate grazing in the pipe systems [48]. Lead piping is also an issue in the European countries [49]. Breaks in pipe systems are concerns in terms of society's water footprint and overall sustainability. Infiltration and leakages in pipe systems are other issues. Excessive particulate matter in pipe systems can also give rise to microorganism build-up [48]. Stagnation in the pipes can also give rise to microbial slimes [48].

Certain privately owned ground water supplies and group schemes incorporate treatments such as aeration and disinfectant using chlorination and ultraviolet light disinfectant [47].

For conventional drinking water treatment, sufficient time for each step of the process, maintenance and energy use is important to management in terms of moving in the direction of an eco-label for water treatment.

#### **4.1 Water treatment in developing countries**

In developing countries, the priority is to obtain biologically safe water. Waterborne diseases is a large issue globally especially in tropical countries with poor water supplies [17]. The chemical and physical characteristics of water should not be overlooked, but emphases on the biological quality treatment should be salient.

The treatment that is utilised in developing countries shall now be discussed. The two treatment systems include:

a.Central source treatment systems

b.Point-of-use (POU) treatment

Central source systems involve water treatment in a central location followed by distribution to the consumer. This is known as medium- or large-scale treatment. The treatment is similar to conventional treatment used in developed countries. This type of treatment can be suitable for urban areas in developing countries. Challenges of network contamination and maintenance of the infrastructure are a large concern [48]. The treated water can be transported by tanker to rural areas, if piped networks are not present in a particular area.

Point-of-use (POU) treatment involves 'informal sources' treated at source which are also known as small-scale treatment. Risk management in terms of pollution of informal sources such as rainwater, shallow boreholes and small streams treated per household is a large concern [50]. When deciding on which type of POU treatment variables to consider, it should include ease of use, price, time for treatment and volume of water treated.

**65**

**Table 2.**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

scale technologies that can be utilised can be seen in **Table 2**.

because it leaves a residual in the water matrix [57].

A selection of point-of-use (POU) treatment commercial systems and small-

Some interesting point-of-use (POU) treatments will be discussed below.

Chlorination was initially used to disinfect public water supplies since the early 1900s, in cities in Europe and the United States of America. In developing countries, a common method for treating water at source involves using a sodium hypochlorite solution placed in a bottle with directions for use. The user adds one full bottle cap volume of the solution to clear water (or two cups volumes for turbid water) to a standard-sized storage container. The user shakes the container and then waits 30 minutes before drinking. The reason that chlorination is so popular is

One of the large challenges of chlorination is the presence of high organic composition that can give rise to the formation of disinfectant-by-products which

Hybrid water treatment technologies are commonly used such as a combination of chlorination and flocculation. An example of the combined technologies involves a small sachet containing both a powdered ferrous sulphate (a flocculant) and calcium hypochlorite (a disinfectant). A commercial design of this approach is known as Pu-R. To use Pu-R, users open the sachet and then add the contents to an open bucket containing 10 litres of water maximum. The bucket contents are stirred for 5 minutes,

The water is then strained through a cotton cloth into a second container; the user then waits 20 minutes for the hypochlorite to inactivate the microorganisms. This technique has been shown to remove bacteria, viruses and protozoa, even in

Chlorination and flocculation can eliminate the formation of disinfectant by-

Filtration and innovations in filtration are a growing interest in the water industry. Basic filtration involved the use of porous stones, and a variety of other natural materials have been used to filter visible contaminants from the water for hundreds of years. Filters are an attractive option for household treatment [59]. A number of interrelated removal mechanisms within the filter media are relied upon to achieve

and the solids in the water will then settle to the bottom of the bucket [56, 57].

products as the flocculation process can remove organics from the water.

**Commercial name Information reference**

Biosand filter and ceramic water purifier [51] Kanchan™ Arsenic filter (KAF) [52] AquaEst RainPC® [53] Solar disinfection (SODIS) [54] LifeStraw® [55] PUR Purifier of Water™ [56]

*Selection of point-of-use (POU) treatments and small-scale treatment.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

*4.1.1 Chlorination*

are considered carcinogenic.

highly turbid waters [58].

*4.1.3 Filtration*

*4.1.2 Chlorination and flocculation*

A selection of point-of-use (POU) treatment commercial systems and smallscale technologies that can be utilised can be seen in **Table 2**.

Some interesting point-of-use (POU) treatments will be discussed below.

#### *4.1.1 Chlorination*

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Both HOCl and OCl<sup>−</sup> can act as disinfectants [47].

Stagnation in the pipes can also give rise to microbial slimes [48].

ing in the direction of an eco-label for water treatment.

**4.1 Water treatment in developing countries**

The two treatment systems include:

a.Central source treatment systems

b.Point-of-use (POU) treatment

ment and volume of water treated.

hypochlorite ion OCl<sup>−</sup>:

disinfectant [47].

Hypochlorous acid which is a weak acid can dissociate into hydrogen ion, H+

Chlorine dosing is the best disinfectant as it can leave a residual in the water to aid disinfection. Ozone and ultraviolet light do not give a residual disinfectant in the water. Post-chemical treatment can also involve pH control. Fluorination can also be used as a post-chemical treatment in certain countries such as Ireland [47].

The water is then stored in reservoirs before being used. Residual disinfection in the storage facility is important to prevent contamination of the storage space. The network management is also very important, and residual disinfection is important to maintain water safety. Microbial slimes in the distribution system pipes can cause the development of waterborne viruses and bacteria and invertebrate grazing in the pipe systems [48]. Lead piping is also an issue in the European countries [49]. Breaks in pipe systems are concerns in terms of society's water footprint and overall sustainability. Infiltration and leakages in pipe systems are other issues. Excessive particulate matter in pipe systems can also give rise to microorganism build-up [48].

Certain privately owned ground water supplies and group schemes incorporate treatments such as aeration and disinfectant using chlorination and ultraviolet light

For conventional drinking water treatment, sufficient time for each step of the process, maintenance and energy use is important to management in terms of mov-

Central source systems involve water treatment in a central location followed by distribution to the consumer. This is known as medium- or large-scale treatment. The treatment is similar to conventional treatment used in developed countries. This type of treatment can be suitable for urban areas in developing countries. Challenges of network contamination and maintenance of the infrastructure are a large concern [48]. The treated water can be transported by tanker

Point-of-use (POU) treatment involves 'informal sources' treated at source which are also known as small-scale treatment. Risk management in terms of pollution of informal sources such as rainwater, shallow boreholes and small streams treated per household is a large concern [50]. When deciding on which type of POU treatment variables to consider, it should include ease of use, price, time for treat-

to rural areas, if piped networks are not present in a particular area.

In developing countries, the priority is to obtain biologically safe water. Waterborne diseases is a large issue globally especially in tropical countries with poor water supplies [17]. The chemical and physical characteristics of water should not be overlooked, but emphases on the biological quality treatment should be salient. The treatment that is utilised in developing countries shall now be discussed.

HOCl ⇌ H<sup>+</sup> + OCl<sup>−</sup> (2)

and

**64**

Chlorination was initially used to disinfect public water supplies since the early 1900s, in cities in Europe and the United States of America. In developing countries, a common method for treating water at source involves using a sodium hypochlorite solution placed in a bottle with directions for use. The user adds one full bottle cap volume of the solution to clear water (or two cups volumes for turbid water) to a standard-sized storage container. The user shakes the container and then waits 30 minutes before drinking. The reason that chlorination is so popular is because it leaves a residual in the water matrix [57].

One of the large challenges of chlorination is the presence of high organic composition that can give rise to the formation of disinfectant-by-products which are considered carcinogenic.

#### *4.1.2 Chlorination and flocculation*

Hybrid water treatment technologies are commonly used such as a combination of chlorination and flocculation. An example of the combined technologies involves a small sachet containing both a powdered ferrous sulphate (a flocculant) and calcium hypochlorite (a disinfectant). A commercial design of this approach is known as Pu-R. To use Pu-R, users open the sachet and then add the contents to an open bucket containing 10 litres of water maximum. The bucket contents are stirred for 5 minutes, and the solids in the water will then settle to the bottom of the bucket [56, 57].

The water is then strained through a cotton cloth into a second container; the user then waits 20 minutes for the hypochlorite to inactivate the microorganisms. This technique has been shown to remove bacteria, viruses and protozoa, even in highly turbid waters [58].

Chlorination and flocculation can eliminate the formation of disinfectant byproducts as the flocculation process can remove organics from the water.

#### *4.1.3 Filtration*

Filtration and innovations in filtration are a growing interest in the water industry. Basic filtration involved the use of porous stones, and a variety of other natural materials have been used to filter visible contaminants from the water for hundreds of years. Filters are an attractive option for household treatment [59]. A number of interrelated removal mechanisms within the filter media are relied upon to achieve


#### **Table 2.**

*Selection of point-of-use (POU) treatments and small-scale treatment.*

high removal efficiencies. These removal mechanisms include the following processes: (1) sedimentation on media (sieve effect), (2) adsorption, (3) absorption, (4) biological action, and (5) straining [60].

There are many porous materials which are locally available and inexpensive options for filtering water. They are simple and easy to use, and the filtering material has a long lifetime. However, filtration has its drawbacks due to maintenance issues such as back flushing of filters and lack of residual effects with regard to disinfection. Again, hybrid water treatment technologies involving basic filtration have been investigated. An interesting membrane hybrid system combining trickling filtration filter and a thin layer of biomass biosand to reduce organic matter can be seen in the literature [61]. Other membrane designs that can be utilised include disc and tubular design, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. The scope for the removal of contaminants by filtration processes can be seen in **Figure 9**.

#### *4.1.4 Filtration and biosolids*

More advanced filtration methods using biosolids have been developed. The biosand filter (BSF) is a slow sand filter which can be adapted for use at home. When the water pours over the filter, a shallow water layer is formed which allows a bioactive layer to grow on top of the sand, which breaks down pathogens in the water. A plate protector prevents the water layer from being disturbed when more water is passed through the filter. In the literature it can be shown that the BSF has high efficiency to remove bacteria and protozoa from the water [63, 64].

An interesting study to remove arsenic from the water in the presence of iron can be seen in the literature in Nigeria using a sand filter. The filter immobilises arsenic (As) via co-oxidation with Fe(11) and sorption to or co-precipitation with the formed Fe(111) to the filter surface [65].

One of the problems with the prolonged use of filters is the potential build-up of biofouling on the surface of the filter [66].

#### *4.1.5 Filtration and chlorination*

A combination of filtration and chlorination systems is also regularly used [67]. Ceramic and slow sand filtration lack a residual disinfectant protection of water, to compensate for this filtration followed by chlorination can be used [68, 69].

**67**

**5. Challenges**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

To remove arsenic (As) metal and its metalloids from drinking water, metal absorption phases have been utilised including iron oxide-coated sand, ferrihydrite red mud, activated alumina, TiO2, FePO4 (amorphous), MnO2, MnO2-loaded resin, natural zeolites (such as clinoptilolite), iron oxide and iron-loaded chelating resin [70]. The use of the biosand iron oxide-coated sand filters to remove viruses from water can be seen in literature. The method consists of electrostatic adsorption of negatively charged virion to sand particles with positively charged iron oxides [71].

The role of natural sunlight to disinfect water has much potential in developing countries. A common method in use is known as the solar disinfection (SODIS) method. Solar disinfection (SODIS) method was initially developed to inexpensively disinfect water used for oral rehydration solutions [72]. The SODIS method involves filling 0.3–2.0 litres of plastic soda bottles with low-turbidity water, followed by shaking to oxygenate the water. The bottles are left for 6 hours in sunny conditions and 2 days if weather is cloudy [73]. Studies have shown that the SODIS method inactivates bacteria and viruses; the protozoa cryptosporidium and giardia are also sensitive to solar irradiation [74]. Other innovations using ultraviolet light can be seen in the literature [75–78]. One of the major advantages of ultraviolet light technology is its cheapness. One of the challenges is designing the technology for max trapping of the ultraviolet light. Seasonal factors can affect the intensity of the ultraviolet light. Small volumes and length of time to treat the water can be a concern. If water has high turbidity, it is recommended to pretreat with flocculation or filtration before ultraviolet light treatment. Presently, the container type is plastic.

Photocatalysts based on nanocatalysts such as the TiO2 catalyst harness ultraviolet radiation from the sunlight and use the energy to break down substances such as microbes, pesticides, dyes, crude oils and organic acids [79]. Pilot projects for drinking water purification in developing countries have only begun involving TiO2 immobilised on plastic which is activated by ultraviolet light to disinfect the water

Challenges to the drinking water supply in developing countries include the natural scarcity of water source in certain areas. Floods can create more siltation problems in river systems as well as the contamination of rivers and large dams giving rise to sourcereceptor issues. Climate change and water scarcity are also some of the concerns [83, 84]. Stratification problems in lake abstraction points and aeration of abstraction point to break down the thermocline layer are needed which requires much energy. Poor access to water and poor water resource management must be addressed. Poor water productivity in the agricultural sector can impact on water quality [85]. Water affordability issues and the challenges of investing in water infrastructure need to be addressed [86, 87]. Storage and confidence in storage facility container to prevent contamination entail education and awareness of cross-contamination [67].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

*4.1.8 Innovative technologies and nanotechnologies*

[80]. Other nanotechnologies are at developing stage [81, 82].

*4.1.6 Innovative solid materials*

*4.1.7 Solar disinfectant*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Filter/membrane particle sizes and what contamination can be removed [62].*

#### *4.1.6 Innovative solid materials*

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

(4) biological action, and (5) straining [60].

filtration processes can be seen in **Figure 9**.

the formed Fe(111) to the filter surface [65].

biofouling on the surface of the filter [66].

*4.1.5 Filtration and chlorination*

*4.1.4 Filtration and biosolids*

high removal efficiencies. These removal mechanisms include the following processes: (1) sedimentation on media (sieve effect), (2) adsorption, (3) absorption,

There are many porous materials which are locally available and inexpensive options for filtering water. They are simple and easy to use, and the filtering material has a long lifetime. However, filtration has its drawbacks due to maintenance issues such as back flushing of filters and lack of residual effects with regard to disinfection. Again, hybrid water treatment technologies involving basic filtration have been investigated. An interesting membrane hybrid system combining trickling filtration filter and a thin layer of biomass biosand to reduce organic matter can be seen in the literature [61]. Other membrane designs that can be utilised include disc and tubular design, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. The scope for the removal of contaminants by

More advanced filtration methods using biosolids have been developed. The biosand filter (BSF) is a slow sand filter which can be adapted for use at home. When the water pours over the filter, a shallow water layer is formed which allows a bioactive layer to grow on top of the sand, which breaks down pathogens in the water. A plate protector prevents the water layer from being disturbed when more water is passed through the filter. In the literature it can be shown that the BSF has

An interesting study to remove arsenic from the water in the presence of iron can be seen in the literature in Nigeria using a sand filter. The filter immobilises arsenic (As) via co-oxidation with Fe(11) and sorption to or co-precipitation with

One of the problems with the prolonged use of filters is the potential build-up of

A combination of filtration and chlorination systems is also regularly used [67]. Ceramic and slow sand filtration lack a residual disinfectant protection of water, to

compensate for this filtration followed by chlorination can be used [68, 69].

*Filter/membrane particle sizes and what contamination can be removed [62].*

high efficiency to remove bacteria and protozoa from the water [63, 64].

**66**

**Figure 9.**

To remove arsenic (As) metal and its metalloids from drinking water, metal absorption phases have been utilised including iron oxide-coated sand, ferrihydrite red mud, activated alumina, TiO2, FePO4 (amorphous), MnO2, MnO2-loaded resin, natural zeolites (such as clinoptilolite), iron oxide and iron-loaded chelating resin [70]. The use of the biosand iron oxide-coated sand filters to remove viruses from water can be seen in literature. The method consists of electrostatic adsorption of negatively charged virion to sand particles with positively charged iron oxides [71].

#### *4.1.7 Solar disinfectant*

The role of natural sunlight to disinfect water has much potential in developing countries. A common method in use is known as the solar disinfection (SODIS) method. Solar disinfection (SODIS) method was initially developed to inexpensively disinfect water used for oral rehydration solutions [72]. The SODIS method involves filling 0.3–2.0 litres of plastic soda bottles with low-turbidity water, followed by shaking to oxygenate the water. The bottles are left for 6 hours in sunny conditions and 2 days if weather is cloudy [73]. Studies have shown that the SODIS method inactivates bacteria and viruses; the protozoa cryptosporidium and giardia are also sensitive to solar irradiation [74]. Other innovations using ultraviolet light can be seen in the literature [75–78]. One of the major advantages of ultraviolet light technology is its cheapness. One of the challenges is designing the technology for max trapping of the ultraviolet light. Seasonal factors can affect the intensity of the ultraviolet light. Small volumes and length of time to treat the water can be a concern. If water has high turbidity, it is recommended to pretreat with flocculation or filtration before ultraviolet light treatment. Presently, the container type is plastic.

#### *4.1.8 Innovative technologies and nanotechnologies*

Photocatalysts based on nanocatalysts such as the TiO2 catalyst harness ultraviolet radiation from the sunlight and use the energy to break down substances such as microbes, pesticides, dyes, crude oils and organic acids [79]. Pilot projects for drinking water purification in developing countries have only begun involving TiO2 immobilised on plastic which is activated by ultraviolet light to disinfect the water [80]. Other nanotechnologies are at developing stage [81, 82].

#### **5. Challenges**

Challenges to the drinking water supply in developing countries include the natural scarcity of water source in certain areas. Floods can create more siltation problems in river systems as well as the contamination of rivers and large dams giving rise to sourcereceptor issues. Climate change and water scarcity are also some of the concerns [83, 84]. Stratification problems in lake abstraction points and aeration of abstraction point to break down the thermocline layer are needed which requires much energy.

Poor access to water and poor water resource management must be addressed. Poor water productivity in the agricultural sector can impact on water quality [85]. Water affordability issues and the challenges of investing in water infrastructure need to be addressed [86, 87]. Storage and confidence in storage facility container to prevent contamination entail education and awareness of cross-contamination [67].

#### *The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

#### **Figure 10.**

*Variables to consider in integrated water management [88].*

To maintain clean drinking water, an integrated approach is needed in developing countries. Proper management of solid waste and waste water can enhance the quality of our drinking waters [88, 89].

Private companies' management of water treatment systems is an interesting debate in developing countries [90]. Water conservation and future issues of water recycling have been discussed in developed countries and can also be applied to developing countries.

Large-scale and small-scale technologies are important to review in terms of maintenance and monitoring [91]. Energy and water treatment needs are a concern [92]. Most developing countries are located in regions of the world which have the most droughts and seasonal changes in precipitation and evaporation which challenges the source of the water at different times of the year [93] (**Figure 10**).

Natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes can affect infrastructure of large-scale system and small-scale systems; point-of-use (POU) treatments are needed to compensate for these issues. Education on the use of point-of-use (POU) treatment in local communities must be encouraged [76]. At different times of the year, the water source availability varies for examples rivers are used during the wet season and bore well water sources are used during the dry season.

#### **6. Conclusion**

Access to safe drinking water is also considered to be a human right, not a privilege, for every man, woman and child (World Bank, 2018).

The World Health Organization emphasizes that 'the introduction of water treatment technology without consideration of the socio-cultural aspects of the community and without behavioural, motivational, educational and participatory activities within the community, is unlikely to be successful or sustainable' [94]. Research, development and deployment (R&D&D) of clean water technologies for developing countries are important to nurture. All these initiatives can help move in the direction of the challenge by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to halve the proportion of the people without access to safe water by 2015 [95]. Clean water is only as clean as waste water management and treatment linking with global waters and the practically closed loop [96]. Performance management framework surrounding drinking water must be nurtured [97]. Private companies organising treatment systems must be properly introduced [98].

**69**

[120–123].

**Acknowledgements**

[101, 102].

**Figure 11.**

*Drinking water sustainability [113].*

addressed [106].

supplies [112] (**Figure 11**).

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

Certain water sources used for different applications challenge our water resources such as industrialisation needs of developing countries. Transport costs and informal sources are important to develop [99]. The human carrying capacity

Legislation and risk management audits and awareness in terms of water conservation issues and human behaviour towards water are important to address

Informal water supply involving point-of-use (POU) treatment will need to be continuously integrated with central supply systems (CSS) as CSS will not facilitate all water demands [50, 103–105]. Cost issues for integration need to be

Two key indicators highlighted by the World Bank are 'annual freshwater withdrawals' and 'improved water source' [107, 108]. Linked with these two key indicators are performance management, public awareness and conservation issues

Waterborne diseases will always be researched in the future [111]. Industrial regulation and waste management especially when industrialisation is occurring at a rapid rate in developing countries are important issues in the future. Good waste management practice will always be embedded in achieving clean drinking water

The full multi-barrier approach from the source to the tap linking with policy should be a future strategy [113]. Network maintenance and provisions for same are salient within the strategy [114, 115]. A harmonisation approach to water sustainability should be embedded in future water planning [116, 117]. The harmonisation approach would involve common arrangements, simple procedures and sharing of information and standards [118]. Developing countries should nurture the opportunity to learn from developed countries about their successes and failures. Sustainability and water security will also be embedded in the future of water management. Informed education, information sharing and simplified production are important to ensure good water quality [119]. Health and water are fundamentally interlinked and need to be constantly researched in terms of global development

I wish to acknowledge the Limerick Institute of Technology for facilitating easy access to journals and ordering of interlibrary loans. I wish to thank David

of central treatment systems and point-of-use (POU) treatment [109, 110].

and population increase and water use are important to monitor [100].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

**Figure 11.** *Drinking water sustainability [113].*

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

quality of our drinking waters [88, 89].

*Variables to consider in integrated water management [88].*

developing countries.

**Figure 10.**

**6. Conclusion**

To maintain clean drinking water, an integrated approach is needed in developing countries. Proper management of solid waste and waste water can enhance the

Private companies' management of water treatment systems is an interesting debate in developing countries [90]. Water conservation and future issues of water recycling have been discussed in developed countries and can also be applied to

Large-scale and small-scale technologies are important to review in terms of maintenance and monitoring [91]. Energy and water treatment needs are a concern [92]. Most developing countries are located in regions of the world which have the most droughts and seasonal changes in precipitation and evaporation which challenges the source of the water at different times of the year [93] (**Figure 10**).

Natural disasters such as storms and earthquakes can affect infrastructure of large-scale system and small-scale systems; point-of-use (POU) treatments are needed to compensate for these issues. Education on the use of point-of-use (POU) treatment in local communities must be encouraged [76]. At different times of the year, the water source availability varies for examples rivers are used during the wet

Access to safe drinking water is also considered to be a human right, not a

The World Health Organization emphasizes that 'the introduction of water treatment technology without consideration of the socio-cultural aspects of the community and without behavioural, motivational, educational and participatory activities within the community, is unlikely to be successful or sustainable' [94]. Research, development and deployment (R&D&D) of clean water technologies for developing countries are important to nurture. All these initiatives can help move in the direction of the challenge by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to halve the proportion of the people without access to safe water by 2015 [95]. Clean water is only as clean as waste water management and treatment linking with global waters and the practically closed loop [96]. Performance management framework surrounding drinking water must be nurtured [97]. Private companies organising

season and bore well water sources are used during the dry season.

privilege, for every man, woman and child (World Bank, 2018).

treatment systems must be properly introduced [98].

**68**

Certain water sources used for different applications challenge our water resources such as industrialisation needs of developing countries. Transport costs and informal sources are important to develop [99]. The human carrying capacity and population increase and water use are important to monitor [100].

Legislation and risk management audits and awareness in terms of water conservation issues and human behaviour towards water are important to address [101, 102].

Informal water supply involving point-of-use (POU) treatment will need to be continuously integrated with central supply systems (CSS) as CSS will not facilitate all water demands [50, 103–105]. Cost issues for integration need to be addressed [106].

Two key indicators highlighted by the World Bank are 'annual freshwater withdrawals' and 'improved water source' [107, 108]. Linked with these two key indicators are performance management, public awareness and conservation issues of central treatment systems and point-of-use (POU) treatment [109, 110].

Waterborne diseases will always be researched in the future [111]. Industrial regulation and waste management especially when industrialisation is occurring at a rapid rate in developing countries are important issues in the future. Good waste management practice will always be embedded in achieving clean drinking water supplies [112] (**Figure 11**).

The full multi-barrier approach from the source to the tap linking with policy should be a future strategy [113]. Network maintenance and provisions for same are salient within the strategy [114, 115]. A harmonisation approach to water sustainability should be embedded in future water planning [116, 117]. The harmonisation approach would involve common arrangements, simple procedures and sharing of information and standards [118]. Developing countries should nurture the opportunity to learn from developed countries about their successes and failures. Sustainability and water security will also be embedded in the future of water management. Informed education, information sharing and simplified production are important to ensure good water quality [119]. Health and water are fundamentally interlinked and need to be constantly researched in terms of global development [120–123].

#### **Acknowledgements**

I wish to acknowledge the Limerick Institute of Technology for facilitating easy access to journals and ordering of interlibrary loans. I wish to thank David

#### *The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Bowlin, of 'Laboratory of Atmospheres, NASA/GSFC. Greenbelt M.D. USA.; Science Systems and Application, Inc Lanham M.D. USA', for producing the map of global precipitation. I also wish to acknowledge a sister of the Cross and Passion order who ministered in Francistown South Africa for her insight into the drinking water source during the wet and dry season. I also wish to thank the EPA Ireland for giving me an Image from their *Drinking water report Public supplies* 2017.

### **Conflict of interest**

None.

### **Author details**

Josephine Treacy Department of Applied Science, Limerick Institute of Technology, Limerick City, Ireland

\*Address all correspondence to: josephine.treacy@lit.ie

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**71**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

A preliminary assessment of an urban river in a developing country. Ecological

[9] Aschermann G, Jeihanipour A, Shen J, Mkongo G, Dramas L, Croue J-P, et al. Seasonal variation of organic matter concentration and characteristics in the Maji ya Chai River (Tanzania): Impact on treatability by ultrafiltration. Water

Indicators. 2015;**48**:282-291

Research. 2016;**101**:370-381

[11] Kostyla C, Bain R, Cronk R. Seasonal variation of fecal contamination in drinking water sources in developing countries: A systematic review. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;**514**:333-343

[12] WHO 2009. Online: http://www. who.int/whosis/whostat/2009/en/

[13] Rondi L, Sorlini S, Collivignarelli MC. Sustainability of water safety plans developed in Sub-saharan Africa. Sustainability. 2015;**7**:11139-11159

[14] Breach B. Drinking Water Quality Management from Catchment to Consumer, A Practical Guide for Utilities based on Water Safety Plans. London: International Water

[15] Ministry for the Environment. Draft Users Guide: National Environmental Standard for Sources of Human Drinking Water. Wellington: Ministry

[16] Han AM, Oo KN, Midorikawa Y, Shwe S. Contamination of drinking water during collection and storage.

[Accessed: April 1 2018]

Association IWA; 2012

for the Environment; 2009

2018]

[10] Tchobanoglous G, Trussell R, Hand D, Crittenden J, Principles of Water Treatment [E –Book] Wiley: 2012 Available from ebook Index 2012 Ipswick MA. Accessed [April 29th

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

[1] Chowdhury S, Mazumder MAJ, Al-Attas O, Husain T. Heavy metals in drinking water: Occurrence, Implication

and future needs in development countries. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;**569-570**:476-488

[2] Shields KF, Bain RE, Cronk R, Wright JA, Bartram J. Association of supply type with fecal contamination of water source and household stored drinking water in developing countries: A bivariate meta-analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives.

2015;**123**(12):1222-1231

[3] Pandit AB, Kumar JK. Clean water for developing countries. Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. 2015;**6**:217-246. DOI: 10.1146/ annurev-chembioeng-061114-123432

[4] WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation (http://www.wssinfo.org/)

[Accessed: March 4th 2018]

2016;**43**(Part A):117-123

MDG assessment; 2015

2015;**511**:123-137

[6] Unicef and World Health

Organisation. 25 progress on sanitation and drinking water 2015 update and

[7] Yadav IC, Devi NL, Syed JH, Chemg Z, Li J, Zhang G, et al. Current status of persistent organic pesticides residues in air, water, and soil, and their possible effect on neighbouring countries: A comprehensive review of India. Science of the Total Environment.

[8] Islam S, Ahmed K, Raknuzzaman M, Mamun A-H, Islam KM. Heavy metal pollution in surface water and sediment:

[5] Martins R, Quintal C, Cruz L, Barata E. Water affordability issues in developing countries – The relevance of micro approaches. Utilities Policy.

**References**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

#### **References**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Bowlin, of 'Laboratory of Atmospheres, NASA/GSFC. Greenbelt M.D. USA.; Science Systems and Application, Inc Lanham M.D. USA', for producing the map of global precipitation. I also wish to acknowledge a sister of the Cross and Passion order who ministered in Francistown South Africa for her insight into the drinking water source during the wet and dry season. I also wish to thank the EPA Ireland for giving me an Image from their *Drinking water report Public supplies*

**70**

**Author details**

Josephine Treacy

Ireland

2017.

**Conflict of interest**

None.

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: josephine.treacy@lit.ie

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Department of Applied Science, Limerick Institute of Technology, Limerick City,

[1] Chowdhury S, Mazumder MAJ, Al-Attas O, Husain T. Heavy metals in drinking water: Occurrence, Implication and future needs in development countries. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;**569-570**:476-488

[2] Shields KF, Bain RE, Cronk R, Wright JA, Bartram J. Association of supply type with fecal contamination of water source and household stored drinking water in developing countries: A bivariate meta-analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2015;**123**(12):1222-1231

[3] Pandit AB, Kumar JK. Clean water for developing countries. Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. 2015;**6**:217-246. DOI: 10.1146/ annurev-chembioeng-061114-123432

[4] WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation (http://www.wssinfo.org/) [Accessed: March 4th 2018]

[5] Martins R, Quintal C, Cruz L, Barata E. Water affordability issues in developing countries – The relevance of micro approaches. Utilities Policy. 2016;**43**(Part A):117-123

[6] Unicef and World Health Organisation. 25 progress on sanitation and drinking water 2015 update and MDG assessment; 2015

[7] Yadav IC, Devi NL, Syed JH, Chemg Z, Li J, Zhang G, et al. Current status of persistent organic pesticides residues in air, water, and soil, and their possible effect on neighbouring countries: A comprehensive review of India. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;**511**:123-137

[8] Islam S, Ahmed K, Raknuzzaman M, Mamun A-H, Islam KM. Heavy metal pollution in surface water and sediment: A preliminary assessment of an urban river in a developing country. Ecological Indicators. 2015;**48**:282-291

[9] Aschermann G, Jeihanipour A, Shen J, Mkongo G, Dramas L, Croue J-P, et al. Seasonal variation of organic matter concentration and characteristics in the Maji ya Chai River (Tanzania): Impact on treatability by ultrafiltration. Water Research. 2016;**101**:370-381

[10] Tchobanoglous G, Trussell R, Hand D, Crittenden J, Principles of Water Treatment [E –Book] Wiley: 2012 Available from ebook Index 2012 Ipswick MA. Accessed [April 29th 2018]

[11] Kostyla C, Bain R, Cronk R. Seasonal variation of fecal contamination in drinking water sources in developing countries: A systematic review. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;**514**:333-343

[12] WHO 2009. Online: http://www. who.int/whosis/whostat/2009/en/ [Accessed: April 1 2018]

[13] Rondi L, Sorlini S, Collivignarelli MC. Sustainability of water safety plans developed in Sub-saharan Africa. Sustainability. 2015;**7**:11139-11159

[14] Breach B. Drinking Water Quality Management from Catchment to Consumer, A Practical Guide for Utilities based on Water Safety Plans. London: International Water Association IWA; 2012

[15] Ministry for the Environment. Draft Users Guide: National Environmental Standard for Sources of Human Drinking Water. Wellington: Ministry for the Environment; 2009

[16] Han AM, Oo KN, Midorikawa Y, Shwe S. Contamination of drinking water during collection and storage.

Tropical and Geographical Medicine. 1989;**41**(2):138-140

[17] Binnie C, Kimbar M. 5th edition. London: Basic Water Treatment Thomas Telford Ltd Institute of Civil Engineers (ICE) Publishing; 2013

[18] Taib SM, Wahab MNFBA, Rezania S, Din MFM. Spatial and temporal patterns of groundwater quality in Selangor, Malaysia. In: Hong SK, Nakagoshi N, editors. Landscape Ecology for Sustainable Society. Cham: Springer; 2017

[19] Liddle ES, Mager SM, Etienne LN. The importance of community based informal water supply systems in the developing world and the need for formal sector support. The Geographical Journal. 2016;**182**(1):85-96

[20] Ilson E, Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype? Natural Resource Defense Council (NRDC), New York. 1999

[21] Global precipitation Image of the GPCPV2.3 Precipitation climatology for the period 1979-2016 expressed in millimeters/day. Image provided by David Bolvin SSAI/NASA GSFC

[22] Oke M, Oyebola O. Assessment of rainwater harvesting potential and challenges in Ijebu Ode Southern Western Part of Nigeria for strategic advice. Scientific Annals of AI. I. Cuza Geography Series. 2014;**LX**:17-39

[23] Singh J, Pandhi A, Choudhary A. Impact assessment of rainwater Harvesting SBI-CAIM interventions in Vidarbha Region of India. Productivity. 2017;**57**(4):370-379

[24] Damen B. Meeting country ambitions to tackle climate change in agriculture: A novel analysis of developing country INDCs in Asia and the Pacific. Prepared for the 9th Asian Society of Agricultural Economists International Conference: Transformation in Agricultural and Food Economy in Asia; 2017

[25] Jordan E, Javernick-Will A, Tierney K. Post-tsunami recovery in Tamil Nadu, India: Combined social and infrastructural outcomes. Natural Hazards. 2016;**84**:1327

[26] Mukherjeea A, Saha D, Harvey CF, Taylor RG, Ahmede KM, Bhanjaa SN. Groundwater systems of the Indian Sub-Continent. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies. 2015;**4**:1-14

[27] Santa SDA, Neville EA, wada G, deSherbinin Y, Bernhardt A, Adamo EM, et al. Urban growth and water access in sub-Saharan Africa: Progress, challenges, and emerging research directions. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;**607-608**:497-508

[28] Ahuja S. Chapter 1: Overview sustaining water the world most crucial resource. In: Chemistry and Water The Science behind Sustaining the World's most Srucial Resource pg. London: Elsevier; 2017. pp. 1-22

[29] Dugue L, Relvas H, Silveira C, Ferreira J, Monteiro A, Gama C, et al. Evaluating strategies to reduce urban air pollution. Atmospheric Environment. 2016;**127**:196-204

[30] Jonssen AS, Wimmerstedt R, Harrysson A-C. Membrane distillation a theoretical study of evaporation through microporous membranes. Desalination. 1985;**56**:237-249

[31] Fujioka R, Wang LP, Dodbiba G, Fujita T. Application of progressive freeze-concentration for desalination. Desalination. 2013; **319**:33-37

[32] Conruvo JA. WHO guidance for health and environmental challenges and nutrient minerals. Journal article conference paper water Practice and Technology. Singopore: International water week; 2008;**3**:4 pp091

**73**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

[42] EPA. Drinking Water Report Public Supplies 2017. Wexford, Ireland: EPA

[43] Edzwald JK. Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook on Drinking Water: American Water Works Association AWW. London: Mc Graw

[44] Veolia Water Solutions And Technology Saint Maurice France Veolia Water Tech. 2018. online: www. veoliawatertechnologies.com/en/

[45] Edzwald JK. Fundamental of dissolved air flotation. Journal of New England Water Works Association.

[46] Gray N. Drinking water Quality Problems and Solutions. 2nd ed. England:

[47] AWWA. AWWA 'Water Quality division Disinfection Systems Committee' Committee report disinfectant Survey Part 1 recent changes current practices and water water quality. Journal AWWA.

Cambridge University Press; 2008

[48] Wright J, Gundry S, Conroy R. Household drinking water in developing countries: A systematic

contamination between source and point of use. Tropical Medicine & International Health. 2004;(1):106-117

[49] McGinnis S, Rottersman R, Hackman A. An introduction to the complexities of lead in drinking water. Natural Resources and Environment.

[50] Arvai J, Post K. Risk management in a developing country context: Improving decisions about point-of-use water treatment among the rural poor in Africa. Risk Analysis. 2012;**32**(1):67-80

[51] Biosand Filter. Online: www. biosandfilter.org/biosandfilter/

review of microbiological

Ireland; 2018

Hill; 2011

contact-us

2007;**121**(3):80-112

2008;**100**(10):79-90

2017;**32**(1):3-7

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

[33] Gao L, Yoshikawa S, Iseri Y, Fujimori S, Kanae S. An economic assessment of the global potential for seawater desalination to 2050. Water. 2017;**9**:763. DOI: 10.3390/w91007/63

[34] Caldera U, Bogdanov D, Breyer C. Local cost of seawater RO

2016;**385**:207-216

desalination based on solar PV and wind energy: A global estimate. *Desalination*.

[35] O'Shea L. An economic approach to reducing water pollution: Point and diffuse sources. Science of the Total Environment. 2002;**282-283**:49-65

[36] Mitchell JK, Soga K. Fundamental of soil behaviours. 3rd ed. Chichester:

[37] NRCS Soil Types. US Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Services; 2005

[38] Kumar RD, Datta B. Salt water intrusion processes in coastal

aquifers- modelling and management. Desalination and Water Treatment.

[39] Ouyang Y. Evaluation of river water quality monitoring stations by principal component analysis. *Water Research*.

[40] Gholizadeh MH, Melesse AM, Reddi L. Water quality assessment and apportionment of pollution sources using APCS-MLR and PMF receptor modeling techniques in three major rivers of South Florida. Science of the Total Environment.

[41] Nasir MFM, Zali MA, Juahir M, Hussian H, Sharifuddin M, Pamli N. Application of receptor models on water quality data in source

apportionment in Kuantan River Basin. Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2012;**9**(1):18.

DOI: 10.1186/1735-2746-9-18

John Wiley and Sons; 2005

2017;**780**:57-89

2005;**39**(12):2621-2635

2016;**566-567**:1552-1567

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

[33] Gao L, Yoshikawa S, Iseri Y, Fujimori S, Kanae S. An economic assessment of the global potential for seawater desalination to 2050. Water. 2017;**9**:763. DOI: 10.3390/w91007/63

[34] Caldera U, Bogdanov D, Breyer C. Local cost of seawater RO desalination based on solar PV and wind energy: A global estimate. *Desalination*. 2016;**385**:207-216

[35] O'Shea L. An economic approach to reducing water pollution: Point and diffuse sources. Science of the Total Environment. 2002;**282-283**:49-65

[36] Mitchell JK, Soga K. Fundamental of soil behaviours. 3rd ed. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons; 2005

[37] NRCS Soil Types. US Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Services; 2005

[38] Kumar RD, Datta B. Salt water intrusion processes in coastal aquifers- modelling and management. Desalination and Water Treatment. 2017;**780**:57-89

[39] Ouyang Y. Evaluation of river water quality monitoring stations by principal component analysis. *Water Research*. 2005;**39**(12):2621-2635

[40] Gholizadeh MH, Melesse AM, Reddi L. Water quality assessment and apportionment of pollution sources using APCS-MLR and PMF receptor modeling techniques in three major rivers of South Florida. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;**566-567**:1552-1567

[41] Nasir MFM, Zali MA, Juahir M, Hussian H, Sharifuddin M, Pamli N. Application of receptor models on water quality data in source apportionment in Kuantan River Basin. Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 2012;**9**(1):18. DOI: 10.1186/1735-2746-9-18

[42] EPA. Drinking Water Report Public Supplies 2017. Wexford, Ireland: EPA Ireland; 2018

[43] Edzwald JK. Water Quality and Treatment: A Handbook on Drinking Water: American Water Works Association AWW. London: Mc Graw Hill; 2011

[44] Veolia Water Solutions And Technology Saint Maurice France Veolia Water Tech. 2018. online: www. veoliawatertechnologies.com/en/ contact-us

[45] Edzwald JK. Fundamental of dissolved air flotation. Journal of New England Water Works Association. 2007;**121**(3):80-112

[46] Gray N. Drinking water Quality Problems and Solutions. 2nd ed. England: Cambridge University Press; 2008

[47] AWWA. AWWA 'Water Quality division Disinfection Systems Committee' Committee report disinfectant Survey Part 1 recent changes current practices and water water quality. Journal AWWA. 2008;**100**(10):79-90

[48] Wright J, Gundry S, Conroy R. Household drinking water in developing countries: A systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point of use. Tropical Medicine & International Health. 2004;(1):106-117

[49] McGinnis S, Rottersman R, Hackman A. An introduction to the complexities of lead in drinking water. Natural Resources and Environment. 2017;**32**(1):3-7

[50] Arvai J, Post K. Risk management in a developing country context: Improving decisions about point-of-use water treatment among the rural poor in Africa. Risk Analysis. 2012;**32**(1):67-80

[51] Biosand Filter. Online: www. biosandfilter.org/biosandfilter/

**72**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Transformation in Agricultural and

[26] Mukherjeea A, Saha D, Harvey CF, Taylor RG, Ahmede KM, Bhanjaa SN. Groundwater systems of the Indian Sub-Continent. Journal of Hydrology:

[27] Santa SDA, Neville EA, wada G, deSherbinin Y, Bernhardt A, Adamo EM, et al. Urban growth and water access in sub-Saharan Africa: Progress, challenges, and emerging research directions. Science of the Total Environment. 2017;**607-608**:497-508

[28] Ahuja S. Chapter 1: Overview sustaining water the world most crucial resource. In: Chemistry and Water The Science behind Sustaining the World's most Srucial Resource pg. London:

[29] Dugue L, Relvas H, Silveira C, Ferreira J, Monteiro A, Gama C, et al. Evaluating strategies to reduce urban air pollution. Atmospheric Environment.

[30] Jonssen AS, Wimmerstedt R, Harrysson A-C. Membrane distillation a theoretical study of evaporation through microporous membranes. Desalination. 1985;**56**:237-249

[31] Fujioka R, Wang LP, Dodbiba G, Fujita T. Application of progressive freeze-concentration for desalination.

[32] Conruvo JA. WHO guidance for health and environmental challenges and nutrient minerals. Journal article conference paper water Practice and Technology. Singopore: International

water week; 2008;**3**:4 pp091

Elsevier; 2017. pp. 1-22

2016;**127**:196-204

Desalination. 2013;

**319**:33-37

Regional Studies. 2015;**4**:1-14

[25] Jordan E, Javernick-Will A, Tierney K. Post-tsunami recovery in Tamil Nadu, India: Combined social and infrastructural outcomes. Natural

Food Economy in Asia; 2017

Hazards. 2016;**84**:1327

Tropical and Geographical Medicine.

[17] Binnie C, Kimbar M. 5th edition. London: Basic Water Treatment Thomas Telford Ltd Institute of Civil Engineers

[18] Taib SM, Wahab MNFBA, Rezania S, Din MFM. Spatial and temporal patterns of groundwater quality in Selangor, Malaysia. In: Hong SK, Nakagoshi N, editors. Landscape Ecology for Sustainable Society. Cham:

[19] Liddle ES, Mager SM, Etienne LN. The importance of community based informal water supply systems in the developing world and the need for formal sector support. The Geographical Journal. 2016;**182**(1):85-96

[20] Ilson E, Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype? Natural Resource Defense Council (NRDC), New York. 1999

[21] Global precipitation Image of the GPCPV2.3 Precipitation climatology for the period 1979-2016 expressed in millimeters/day. Image provided by David Bolvin SSAI/NASA GSFC

[22] Oke M, Oyebola O. Assessment of rainwater harvesting potential and challenges in Ijebu Ode Southern Western Part of Nigeria for strategic advice. Scientific Annals of AI. I. Cuza Geography Series. 2014;**LX**:17-39

[23] Singh J, Pandhi A, Choudhary A. Impact assessment of rainwater Harvesting SBI-CAIM interventions in Vidarbha Region of India. Productivity.

[24] Damen B. Meeting country ambitions to tackle climate change in agriculture: A novel analysis of developing country INDCs in Asia and the Pacific. Prepared for the 9th Asian Society of Agricultural Economists International Conference:

2017;**57**(4):370-379

1989;**41**(2):138-140

(ICE) Publishing; 2013

Springer; 2017

[Accessed: April 4 2018] Ceramic Water Purifier. Online: www.Pottersforpeace. org?page\_id=9 [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[52] Kanchan™Asenic Filter (KAF). Online: www.nepal.watsan.net [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[53] AquaESt RainPC®. Online: www. aquaestinternational.com/rainpc.htm [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[54] Solar disinfection (SOLIS) Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. Online: www.cde.gov/safewater/ solardisinfection.html [Accessed: May 1 2018]

[55] LIfeStraw®. Online: www. vestergaard-frandsen.com/lifestraw [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[56] PUR Purifier of Water™. Online: www.purwater.com [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[57] Arnold BF, Colford JM. Treating water with chlorine at point of use to improve water quality and reduce child diarrhea in developing countries : A Systematic review and Meta Analysis. The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2007;**76**(2):354-364

[58] Souter PF, Graeme D, Cruickshank MZ, Tankerville BH, Keswick BD, Ellis DE. Evaluation of a new water treatment for point of use household applications to remove microorganisms and arsenic from drinking water. Journal of Water and Health. 2003;**1**(2):73-84

[59] Sobsey MD, Stauber CE, Casanova LM, Joseph M, Brown JM, Elliott MA. Point of use household drinking water filtration: A practical, effective solution for providing sustained access to safe drinking water in the developing world. Environmental Science & Technology. 2008;**42**(12):4261-4267. DOI: 10.1021/es702746n

[60] EPA Treatment Manual Filtration. 1995. Online: https://www.epa.ie/pubs/ advice/drinkingwater/EPA\_water\_ treatment\_manual\_%20filtration1.pdf [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[61] Shin GA, Kim T-Y, Kim H-S, Maeng M-S. Membrane hybrid system combined with a trickling filter and a thin layer of biosand to reduce high levels of organic matter in drinking water in developing countries. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2016;**104**:541-548

[62] Pure Eater. Online: http://www.linae. fr/en/linae-pure-water-purificationcontext/purification-surface-water/ [Accessed: March 30 2018]

[63] Kaiser N, Liang K, Maertens M, Snider R. 2002 BSF Evaluation Report: Summary of all Lab and Field Studies. Canada: Samaritan's Purse; 2002. Available from: http://www.cawst. org/technology/watertreatment/ summaryoflabandfield.php

[64] Palmateer G, Manz D, Jurovic A, McInnis R, Unger S, Kwan K, et al. Toxicant and parasite challenge of Manz intermittent slow sand filter. Environmental Toxicology. 1999;**14**:217-225

[65] Nitzsche KS, Lan VM, Trang PTK, Viet PH, Berg M, Voegelin A, et al. Arsenic removal from drinking water by a house hold sand filter in Vietnam\_ effect of filter usage practices on arsenic removal efficiency and microbiological water quality. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;**502**:526-536

[66] Chawla C, Zwijnenburg A, Kemperman AJB, Nijmeijer K. Fouling in gravity driven point of use drinking water treatment systems. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2017;**319**:89-97

[67] Sobsey MD, Handzel T, Venczel L. Chlorination and safe storage of house hold drinking water in developing

**75**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

[76] Albert J, Luoto J, Levine D. Enduser preferences for and performance of competing POU water treatment technologies among the rural poor of Kenya. Environmental Science & Technology. 2010;**44**(12):4426-4432

[77] Simons R, Gabbai UE, Moram MA. Optical fluence modelling for ultraviolet light emitting diode-based water treatment systems. Water Research. 2014;**66**:338-349

[78] Yumu Lui G, David Roser D,

Environment. 2014;**493**:185-196

[80] RCSI. 2018. Online: www.rcsi.ie/ sodis/ [Accessed: May 1 2018]

[81] Adeleye AS, Comway JR, Garner K,

[82] Santhosh C, Velmurugan V, Jacob G, Jeong SK, Grace AN, Bhatnagar A. Role of nanomaterials in water treatment applications; a review. Chemical Engineering Journal.

[83] Mirza MMQ. Climate change and extreme weather events: Can developing

[84] Vairavamoorthy K, Gorantiwar SD, Pathirana A. Managing urban water supplies in developing countries-climate change and water scarcity scenarios.

countries adapt? Climate Policy.

Huang Y, Yiming S, Keller AA. Engineered nanomaterials for water treatment and remediation: Costs, benefits and applicability. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2016;**286**:640-662

[79] Savage N, Mamadou SD. Nanomaterials and water purification: Opportunities and challenges. Nano Research.

2005;**7**(4-5):331-342

2016;**306**:11116-11137

2003;**3**(3):233-248

Corkish R, Ashbolt N, Jagals P, Stuetz R. Photovoltaic powered ultraviolet and visible light-emitting diodes for sustainable point-of-use disinfection of drinking waters. Science of the Total

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

diseases. Water Science and Technology.

countries to reduce water borne

[68] Loo SL, fane AG, Krantz WB, Lim TT. Emergency water supply: A review of potential technologies and selection criteria. Water Research.

[69] Muhammad N, Sinha R, Krishnan ER, Patterson CL. Ceramic Filter for small system drinking water treatment: Evaluation of membrane Pore size and Importance of integrity Monitoring. Journal of Environmental Engineering.

2003;**47**(3):221-228

2012;**46**(10):3125-3151

2009;**11**:1181-1191

UNICEF; 1984

2012;**235-236**:29-46

1997;**46**(3):127-137

1994;**43**(4):154-169

[70] Parimal P. Industrial Water Treatment Process Technology. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2017

[71] Bradley I, Straub A, Maraccini P, Markazi S. Iron oxide amended biosand. Water Research. 2011;**45**(1):4501-4510

[72] Acra A, Karahogopian Y, Raffoul Z. Solar Disinfection of Drinking Water and Oral Rehydration Solutions – Guidelines for Household Application in Developing Countries. Beirut, Lebanon:

[73] Mc Guigan KG, Conroy RM, Mosler HJ, DuPreez M, Ubomba-Jaswa E, Fernandez-Ibanez P. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) a review from bench-top to roof-top. Journal of Hazardous Materials.

[74] Sommer B, Marino A, Solarte Y, Salas M, Dierolf C, Valiente C, et al. SODIS: An emerging water treatment process. Aqua (Oxford).

[75] Wegelin M, Canonica S, Mechsner K, Fleischmann T, Pesaro F, Metzler A. Solar water disinfection: Scope of the process and analysis of radiation experiments. Aqua (Oxford).

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

countries to reduce water borne diseases. Water Science and Technology. 2003;**47**(3):221-228

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

[60] EPA Treatment Manual Filtration. 1995. Online: https://www.epa.ie/pubs/ advice/drinkingwater/EPA\_water\_ treatment\_manual\_%20filtration1.pdf

[Accessed: April 4 2018]

2016;**104**:541-548

[Accessed: March 30 2018]

[61] Shin GA, Kim T-Y, Kim H-S, Maeng M-S. Membrane hybrid system combined with a trickling filter and a thin layer of biosand to reduce high levels of organic matter in drinking water in developing countries. Process Safety and Environmental Protection.

[62] Pure Eater. Online: http://www.linae. fr/en/linae-pure-water-purificationcontext/purification-surface-water/

[63] Kaiser N, Liang K, Maertens M, Snider R. 2002 BSF Evaluation Report: Summary of all Lab and Field Studies. Canada: Samaritan's Purse; 2002. Available from: http://www.cawst. org/technology/watertreatment/ summaryoflabandfield.php

[64] Palmateer G, Manz D, Jurovic A, McInnis R, Unger S, Kwan K, et al. Toxicant and parasite challenge of Manz intermittent slow sand filter. Environmental Toxicology.

[65] Nitzsche KS, Lan VM, Trang PTK, Viet PH, Berg M, Voegelin A, et al. Arsenic removal from drinking water by a house hold sand filter in Vietnam\_ effect of filter usage practices on arsenic removal efficiency and microbiological water quality. Science of the Total Environment. 2015;**502**:526-536

[66] Chawla C, Zwijnenburg A, Kemperman AJB, Nijmeijer K. Fouling in gravity driven point of use drinking water treatment systems. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2017;**319**:89-97

[67] Sobsey MD, Handzel T, Venczel L. Chlorination and safe storage of house hold drinking water in developing

1999;**14**:217-225

[Accessed: April 4 2018] Ceramic Water Purifier. Online: www.Pottersforpeace. org?page\_id=9 [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[52] Kanchan™Asenic Filter (KAF). Online: www.nepal.watsan.net [Accessed: April 4 2018]

[53] AquaESt RainPC®. Online: www. aquaestinternational.com/rainpc.htm

[54] Solar disinfection (SOLIS) Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. Online: www.cde.gov/safewater/ solardisinfection.html [Accessed: May

[Accessed: April 4 2018]

[55] LIfeStraw®. Online: www. vestergaard-frandsen.com/lifestraw

[56] PUR Purifier of Water™. Online: www.purwater.com [Accessed: April 4

[57] Arnold BF, Colford JM. Treating water with chlorine at point of use to improve water quality and reduce child diarrhea in developing countries : A Systematic review and Meta Analysis. The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[58] Souter PF, Graeme D, Cruickshank MZ, Tankerville BH, Keswick BD, Ellis DE. Evaluation of a new water treatment for point of use household applications to remove microorganisms and arsenic from drinking water. Journal of Water and Health.

[59] Sobsey MD, Stauber CE, Casanova LM, Joseph M, Brown JM, Elliott MA. Point of use household drinking water filtration: A practical, effective solution for providing sustained access to safe drinking water in the developing world. Environmental Science & Technology. 2008;**42**(12):4261-4267.

[Accessed: April 4 2018]

2007;**76**(2):354-364

2003;**1**(2):73-84

DOI: 10.1021/es702746n

1 2018]

2018]

**74**

[68] Loo SL, fane AG, Krantz WB, Lim TT. Emergency water supply: A review of potential technologies and selection criteria. Water Research. 2012;**46**(10):3125-3151

[69] Muhammad N, Sinha R, Krishnan ER, Patterson CL. Ceramic Filter for small system drinking water treatment: Evaluation of membrane Pore size and Importance of integrity Monitoring. Journal of Environmental Engineering. 2009;**11**:1181-1191

[70] Parimal P. Industrial Water Treatment Process Technology. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2017

[71] Bradley I, Straub A, Maraccini P, Markazi S. Iron oxide amended biosand. Water Research. 2011;**45**(1):4501-4510

[72] Acra A, Karahogopian Y, Raffoul Z. Solar Disinfection of Drinking Water and Oral Rehydration Solutions – Guidelines for Household Application in Developing Countries. Beirut, Lebanon: UNICEF; 1984

[73] Mc Guigan KG, Conroy RM, Mosler HJ, DuPreez M, Ubomba-Jaswa E, Fernandez-Ibanez P. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) a review from bench-top to roof-top. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2012;**235-236**:29-46

[74] Sommer B, Marino A, Solarte Y, Salas M, Dierolf C, Valiente C, et al. SODIS: An emerging water treatment process. Aqua (Oxford). 1997;**46**(3):127-137

[75] Wegelin M, Canonica S, Mechsner K, Fleischmann T, Pesaro F, Metzler A. Solar water disinfection: Scope of the process and analysis of radiation experiments. Aqua (Oxford). 1994;**43**(4):154-169

[76] Albert J, Luoto J, Levine D. Enduser preferences for and performance of competing POU water treatment technologies among the rural poor of Kenya. Environmental Science & Technology. 2010;**44**(12):4426-4432

[77] Simons R, Gabbai UE, Moram MA. Optical fluence modelling for ultraviolet light emitting diode-based water treatment systems. Water Research. 2014;**66**:338-349

[78] Yumu Lui G, David Roser D, Corkish R, Ashbolt N, Jagals P, Stuetz R. Photovoltaic powered ultraviolet and visible light-emitting diodes for sustainable point-of-use disinfection of drinking waters. Science of the Total Environment. 2014;**493**:185-196

[79] Savage N, Mamadou SD. Nanomaterials and water purification: Opportunities and challenges. Nano Research. 2005;**7**(4-5):331-342

[80] RCSI. 2018. Online: www.rcsi.ie/ sodis/ [Accessed: May 1 2018]

[81] Adeleye AS, Comway JR, Garner K, Huang Y, Yiming S, Keller AA. Engineered nanomaterials for water treatment and remediation: Costs, benefits and applicability. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2016;**286**:640-662

[82] Santhosh C, Velmurugan V, Jacob G, Jeong SK, Grace AN, Bhatnagar A. Role of nanomaterials in water treatment applications; a review. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2016;**306**:11116-11137

[83] Mirza MMQ. Climate change and extreme weather events: Can developing countries adapt? Climate Policy. 2003;**3**(3):233-248

[84] Vairavamoorthy K, Gorantiwar SD, Pathirana A. Managing urban water supplies in developing countries-climate change and water scarcity scenarios.

Physics and Chemistry of the Earth parts A/B/C. 2008;**33**(5):330-339

[85] Cosgrove WJ, Loucks DP. Water management current and future challenges and research directions. In: Water Resource Research. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union (AGU) Publications; 2015

[86] Rodriguez D, Den Berg CV, McMahon A. Investing in water Infrastructure: Capital, Operations and Management World Bank Water Papers 1; 2012. pp. 1-52

[87] Ghosh S, Morella E. Africa Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Directions in Developments Infrastructure Access Affordability and Alternatives. The World Bank; 2011

[88] Blueriver. Online: https://bluerivers. kiev.ua/water-quality-and-waterresources-management **[**Accessed: April 1 2018]

[89] Thompson T, Sobsey M, Bartram J. Providing clean water, keeping water clean an integrated approach. International Journal of Environmental Health Research. 2003;**13**(Suppl 1): S89-S94

[90] Ameyaw E. A survey of critical success for attracting private sector participation in water supply projects in developing countries. Journal of Facilities Management. 2017;**15**(1):1472-5967

[91] Nhapi I. Challenges for water supply and sanitation in developing countries: Case studies from Zimbabwe. In: Grafton Q, Daniell K, Nauges C, Rinaudo JD, Chan N, editors. Understanding and Managing Urban Water in Transition. Global Issues in Water Policy. Vol. 15. Dordrecht: Springer; 2015

[92] Water Energy Health and Biodiversity (WEHAB) Working Group. A Framework for Action on Water and Sanitation (United Nations Preparation for the World Summit on Sustainable Development); 2002. Available from: http://www.un.org/esa/ sustdev/publications/wehab\_water\_ sanitation.pdf [Accessed: March 30th 2018]

[93] Gamble DW, Donovan Campbell DL, Allen LT, Barker D, Curtis S, McGregor D, et al. Climate change, drought, and Jamaican agriculture: Local knowledge and the climate record. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 2010;**100**(4):880-893

[94] Vail LS, Homnick D. Waterborne disease. Journal of Alternative Medicine Research. 2006;**8**(1):7-15

[95] WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Water for Life: Making it happen. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO & UNICEF; 2005. Available from: http://www.unicef.org/wes/files/ JMP\_2005

[96] Treacy J. Chapter: 35 Wastewater operation requirements and distribution systems. In: Eslamian S, editor. Urban Water Reuse Handbook. 1st ed. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group; 2015. DOI: 10.1201/b19646-44

[97] Sattarov M, Volkova T. A performance management framework for water utilities in developing countries. Journal of Business and Management. 2017;(13):91-109

[98] Challenges for Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries: Case Studies from Zimbabwe. Online: https://link.springer.com/ book/10.1007/978-94-017-9801-3 [Accessed: March 18 2018]

[99] Mintz E, Bartram J, Lochery P, Wegelin M. Not just a drop in the bucket Expanding Access to point of use water treatment. American Journal of Public Health. 2001;**91**(10):1565-1570

**77**

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries*

om/linkingchap6.pdf [Accessed: Jan

[108] WHO. 2018. Online: http://www. who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/ en/ [Accessed: January 9th 2018]

performance Management Framework. Journal of Business and Management.

[110] Combating Waterborne Diseases at the Household Level (pdf). World Health Organization; 2007 Part 1. ISBN

[111] Massoud MA, Al-Abady A, Jurdi M, Iman Nuwayhid I. The challenges of sustainable access to safe drinking water in rural areas of developing countries: Case of Zawtar El-Charkieh, Southern Lebanon. Journal of Environmental

[109] Sattarov M, Volkova T. A

18th 2018]

2017;**13**:91-109

978-92-4-159522-3

Health. 2010;**72**(10):24-30

[112] Babayemi JO, Ogundiran MB, Osbanjo O. 'Overview of Environmental Hazards and Health effects of pollution in developing countries A case study of Nigeria'. Environmental Quality Management. 2016;**26**(1):51-71

[113] Lantagne DS, Quick R, Mintz-Navig ED. 2006 - pseau.org Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage Options in Developing Countries. Online: Wilson\_center\_water\_ stories\_expanding\_opportunities\_in\_ small\_scale\_water\_and-sanitation\_ projects\_2007\_pdf [Accessed: Jan 20

[114] Gilbert G, Cooper WJ, Rice RG, Pacey GE. Disinfectant Residual Measurement Methods. Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation, American

treatment: A handbook of community water supplies. 5th ed. New York:

Water Works Association; 1987

[115] American Water Works Association. Water quality and

McGraw-Hill, Inc; 1999

2018]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

[100] Fiebelkorn AP, Person B, Quick RE, Vindigni SM, Jhung M, Bowen A, et al. Systematic review of behavior change research on point-of-use water treatment interventions in countries categorized as low- to medium-development on the human development index. Social Science and

[101] Anderson B, Romani J, Phillips H, Wentzel M, Tlabela K. Exploring environmental perceptions, behaviors and awareness: Water and water pollution in South Africa. Population and Environment. 2007;**28**:133-161

[102] McDaniels T, Gregory R, Fields D. Democratizing risk management: Successful public involvement in local water management decisions. Risk

[103] Yumu Lui G, Roser D, Corkish R, Ashbolt NJ, Stuetz R. Point-of-use water disinfection using ultraviolet and visible light-emitting diodes. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;**553**:626-635

[104] Procter and Gamble Company. Press Release: New P&G Technology Improves Drinking Water in Developing

[105] Crump JA, Otieno PO, Slutsker L. Household based treatment of drinking water with flocculant-disinfectant for preventing diarrhoea in areas with turbid water source in rural western Kenya: cluster randomised controlled

Countries, Procter and Gamble,

Cincinnati, Ohio; 2001

trial. BMJ. 2005;**331**:478

6.2016.1161719

[106] Holm R, Singinib W, Gwayic S. Comparative evaluation of the cost of water in northern Malawi: From rural water wells to science education. Applied Economics. 2016;**48**(47):4573- 4583 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0003684

[107] Water Treatment World Health Organization. Online: http://www.who. int/water\_sanitation\_health/hygiene/

Medicine. 2012;**75**:622-633

Analysis. 1999;**19**:497-510

*Drinking Water Treatment and Challenges in Developing Countries DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80780*

[100] Fiebelkorn AP, Person B, Quick RE, Vindigni SM, Jhung M, Bowen A, et al. Systematic review of behavior change research on point-of-use water treatment interventions in countries categorized as low- to medium-development on the human development index. Social Science and Medicine. 2012;**75**:622-633

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Water and Sanitation (United Nations Preparation for the World Summit on Sustainable Development); 2002. Available from: http://www.un.org/esa/ sustdev/publications/wehab\_water\_ sanitation.pdf [Accessed: March 30th

[93] Gamble DW, Donovan Campbell DL, Allen LT, Barker D, Curtis S, McGregor D, et al. Climate change, drought, and Jamaican agriculture: Local knowledge and the climate record. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 2010;**100**(4):880-893

[94] Vail LS, Homnick D. Waterborne disease. Journal of Alternative Medicine

[95] WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Water for Life: Making it happen. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO & UNICEF; 2005. Available from: http://www.unicef.org/wes/files/

[96] Treacy J. Chapter: 35 Wastewater operation requirements and distribution systems. In: Eslamian S, editor. Urban Water Reuse Handbook. 1st ed. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group; 2015.

performance management framework for water utilities in developing countries. Journal of Business and Management. 2017;(13):91-109

[98] Challenges for Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries: Case Studies from Zimbabwe. Online: https://link.springer.com/ book/10.1007/978-94-017-9801-3 [Accessed: March 18 2018]

[99] Mintz E, Bartram J, Lochery P, Wegelin M. Not just a drop in the bucket Expanding Access to point of use water treatment. American Journal of Public

Health. 2001;**91**(10):1565-1570

Research. 2006;**8**(1):7-15

DOI: 10.1201/b19646-44

[97] Sattarov M, Volkova T. A

JMP\_2005

2018]

Physics and Chemistry of the Earth parts A/B/C. 2008;**33**(5):330-339

[85] Cosgrove WJ, Loucks DP. Water management current and future challenges and research directions. In: Water Resource Research. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union

(AGU) Publications; 2015

1; 2012. pp. 1-52

World Bank; 2011

1 2018]

S89-S94

[86] Rodriguez D, Den Berg CV, McMahon A. Investing in water

Infrastructure: Capital, Operations and Management World Bank Water Papers

[87] Ghosh S, Morella E. Africa Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Directions in Developments Infrastructure Access Affordability and Alternatives. The

[88] Blueriver. Online: https://bluerivers. kiev.ua/water-quality-and-waterresources-management **[**Accessed: April

[89] Thompson T, Sobsey M, Bartram J. Providing clean water, keeping water clean an integrated approach. International Journal of Environmental Health Research. 2003;**13**(Suppl 1):

[90] Ameyaw E. A survey of critical success for attracting private sector participation in water supply projects in developing countries. Journal of Facilities Management.

[91] Nhapi I. Challenges for water supply and sanitation in developing countries: Case studies from Zimbabwe. In:

Grafton Q, Daniell K, Nauges C, Rinaudo JD, Chan N, editors. Understanding and Managing Urban Water in Transition. Global Issues in Water Policy. Vol. 15.

2017;**15**(1):1472-5967

Dordrecht: Springer; 2015

[92] Water Energy Health and Biodiversity (WEHAB) Working Group. A Framework for Action on

**76**

[101] Anderson B, Romani J, Phillips H, Wentzel M, Tlabela K. Exploring environmental perceptions, behaviors and awareness: Water and water pollution in South Africa. Population and Environment. 2007;**28**:133-161

[102] McDaniels T, Gregory R, Fields D. Democratizing risk management: Successful public involvement in local water management decisions. Risk Analysis. 1999;**19**:497-510

[103] Yumu Lui G, Roser D, Corkish R, Ashbolt NJ, Stuetz R. Point-of-use water disinfection using ultraviolet and visible light-emitting diodes. Science of the Total Environment. 2016;**553**:626-635

[104] Procter and Gamble Company. Press Release: New P&G Technology Improves Drinking Water in Developing Countries, Procter and Gamble, Cincinnati, Ohio; 2001

[105] Crump JA, Otieno PO, Slutsker L. Household based treatment of drinking water with flocculant-disinfectant for preventing diarrhoea in areas with turbid water source in rural western Kenya: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2005;**331**:478

[106] Holm R, Singinib W, Gwayic S. Comparative evaluation of the cost of water in northern Malawi: From rural water wells to science education. Applied Economics. 2016;**48**(47):4573- 4583 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0003684 6.2016.1161719

[107] Water Treatment World Health Organization. Online: http://www.who. int/water\_sanitation\_health/hygiene/

om/linkingchap6.pdf [Accessed: Jan 18th 2018]

[108] WHO. 2018. Online: http://www. who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/ en/ [Accessed: January 9th 2018]

[109] Sattarov M, Volkova T. A performance Management Framework. Journal of Business and Management. 2017;**13**:91-109

[110] Combating Waterborne Diseases at the Household Level (pdf). World Health Organization; 2007 Part 1. ISBN 978-92-4-159522-3

[111] Massoud MA, Al-Abady A, Jurdi M, Iman Nuwayhid I. The challenges of sustainable access to safe drinking water in rural areas of developing countries: Case of Zawtar El-Charkieh, Southern Lebanon. Journal of Environmental Health. 2010;**72**(10):24-30

[112] Babayemi JO, Ogundiran MB, Osbanjo O. 'Overview of Environmental Hazards and Health effects of pollution in developing countries A case study of Nigeria'. Environmental Quality Management. 2016;**26**(1):51-71

[113] Lantagne DS, Quick R, Mintz-Navig ED. 2006 - pseau.org Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage Options in Developing Countries. Online: Wilson\_center\_water\_ stories\_expanding\_opportunities\_in\_ small\_scale\_water\_and-sanitation\_ projects\_2007\_pdf [Accessed: Jan 20 2018]

[114] Gilbert G, Cooper WJ, Rice RG, Pacey GE. Disinfectant Residual Measurement Methods. Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation, American Water Works Association; 1987

[115] American Water Works Association. Water quality and treatment: A handbook of community water supplies. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc; 1999

[116] Global Water Partnership, What is IWRM? 2013. Online: www.gwp.org/ en/The-Challange/What-is-IWRM/ [Accessed: Feb 4 2018]

[117] Market report 2016-2021 Global Point Of use Water treatment System Market report 2016-2021- Analysis, Technologies & Forecasts-Key Vendors: 3M Sompany, LG Electronics, Pentairresearch and Markets

[118] Development Gateway: Aid Harmonisation and Alignment for Grater Aid Effectiveness. Online: www. aidharmonisation.org. [Accessed: May 2 2018]

[119] Fiebelkorn AP, Person B, Quick RE, Vindigni SM, Jhung M, Bowen A, et al. Systematic review of behaviour change research on pointof-use water treatment interventions in countries categorized as low-to medium-development on the human development index. Social Science and Medicine. 2012;**25**:622-633

[120] Mc Michael AJ. The urban environment and health in a world of increasing globalization: Issues for developing countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation. 2000;**78**(9):1117-1126

[121] Kenel PP, Schlaman JC. Preserving sustainable water supplies for future generations. Journal AWWA. 2005;**97**(7):78

[122] Richter BD, Blount ME, Bottorff C, Brooks HE, Demmerle A, Gardner BL, et al. Assessing the sustainability of urban water supply systems. Journal AWWA. 2018;**110**:2

[123] Denver Water. Your Water: Environmental Planning and Stewardship. 2017. Online: www. denverwater.org/your-water/watersupply-andplanning/environmentalplanningand-stewardship [Accessed: April 29 2018]

**79**

**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

Baringo

**1. Introduction**

lack improved sanitation facilities [2].

Household Water Handling

Practices in the Arid and

*Edith J. Kurui, George M. Ogendi,* 

Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya

*Wilkister N. Moturi and Dishon O. Nyawanga*

area to prevent water related diseases at the household level.

**Keywords:** drinking water, sanitary survey, storage containers, water pan users,

Despite numerous efforts and interventions by the private and government sectors, 1.3 billion people in the developing world lack adequate access to clean and safe drinking water [1]. Recent statistics indicate that approximately 770 million people still use unimproved water sources, whereas 36 per cent of the world's population

Kenya is considered chronically water scarce. The ASALs in Kenya are highly affected, with water scarcity leaving the majority of the inhabitants dependent on unimproved water sources. According to the 2014 Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) report, Kenya was ranked to be among countries with inadequate sanitation facilities in the rural areas, where some open defecation cases have been reported [3]. Water sources for most households in ASALs is drawn from water pans, dams,

unprotected springs, unprotected wells, water vendors and rivers.

Utilisation of water from unimproved water sources coupled with inadequate access to sanitation can adversely affect human health. This study undertaken from November 2014 to March, 2015 sought to assess the household water handling practices and relate them to the prevalent diseases in Baringo Central and South, Kenya. A Household sanitary survey was conducted and questionnaires were administered to 100 household heads within the study area. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that 72% of the households (n = 100) collected water for cooking and drinking from the water pans. Only 34% of the households treated water commonly using boiling (19%), filtration with cloth (2%), chlorine (11%) before using it for drinking. There was a positive correlation between methods used in accessing water from drinking water storage containers and water related diseases prevalent in the study area (p < 0.05). Household drinking water in the study area did not meet the WHO drinking water quality guidelines mainly due to poor handling practices at the household level. There is a need to promote water, sanitation and hygiene campaigns in the study

#### **Chapter 6**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

[116] Global Water Partnership, What is IWRM? 2013. Online: www.gwp.org/ en/The-Challange/What-is-IWRM/

[117] Market report 2016-2021 Global Point Of use Water treatment System Market report 2016-2021- Analysis, Technologies & Forecasts-Key Vendors: 3M Sompany, LG Electronics, Pentair-

[118] Development Gateway: Aid Harmonisation and Alignment for Grater Aid Effectiveness. Online: www. aidharmonisation.org. [Accessed: May

[119] Fiebelkorn AP, Person B, Quick RE, Vindigni SM, Jhung M, Bowen A, et al. Systematic review of behaviour change research on pointof-use water treatment interventions in countries categorized as low-to medium-development on the human development index. Social Science and

Medicine. 2012;**25**:622-633

2000;**78**(9):1117-1126

2005;**97**(7):78

AWWA. 2018;**110**:2

April 29 2018]

[120] Mc Michael AJ. The urban environment and health in a world of increasing globalization: Issues for developing countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation.

sustainable water supplies for future generations. Journal AWWA.

[121] Kenel PP, Schlaman JC. Preserving

[122] Richter BD, Blount ME, Bottorff C, Brooks HE, Demmerle A, Gardner BL, et al. Assessing the sustainability of urban water supply systems. Journal

[123] Denver Water. Your Water: Environmental Planning and Stewardship. 2017. Online: www. denverwater.org/your-water/watersupply-andplanning/environmentalplanningand-stewardship [Accessed:

[Accessed: Feb 4 2018]

research and Markets

2 2018]

**78**

## Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya

*Edith J. Kurui, George M. Ogendi, Wilkister N. Moturi and Dishon O. Nyawanga*

#### **Abstract**

Utilisation of water from unimproved water sources coupled with inadequate access to sanitation can adversely affect human health. This study undertaken from November 2014 to March, 2015 sought to assess the household water handling practices and relate them to the prevalent diseases in Baringo Central and South, Kenya. A Household sanitary survey was conducted and questionnaires were administered to 100 household heads within the study area. The data was analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results indicated that 72% of the households (n = 100) collected water for cooking and drinking from the water pans. Only 34% of the households treated water commonly using boiling (19%), filtration with cloth (2%), chlorine (11%) before using it for drinking. There was a positive correlation between methods used in accessing water from drinking water storage containers and water related diseases prevalent in the study area (p < 0.05). Household drinking water in the study area did not meet the WHO drinking water quality guidelines mainly due to poor handling practices at the household level. There is a need to promote water, sanitation and hygiene campaigns in the study area to prevent water related diseases at the household level.

**Keywords:** drinking water, sanitary survey, storage containers, water pan users, Baringo

#### **1. Introduction**

Despite numerous efforts and interventions by the private and government sectors, 1.3 billion people in the developing world lack adequate access to clean and safe drinking water [1]. Recent statistics indicate that approximately 770 million people still use unimproved water sources, whereas 36 per cent of the world's population lack improved sanitation facilities [2].

Kenya is considered chronically water scarce. The ASALs in Kenya are highly affected, with water scarcity leaving the majority of the inhabitants dependent on unimproved water sources. According to the 2014 Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) report, Kenya was ranked to be among countries with inadequate sanitation facilities in the rural areas, where some open defecation cases have been reported [3]. Water sources for most households in ASALs is drawn from water pans, dams, unprotected springs, unprotected wells, water vendors and rivers.

Like many other ASALs in Kenya, Central and South Baringo is characterised by inadequate access to water and sanitation. The main water sources in the region are unprotected water pans and dam. The existing high morbidity and mortality from communicable diseases in households in ASAL areas can partly be attributed to inadequate access to sanitation [4]. According to 2014 survey by the Ministry of Health (MoH) in Kenya, Baringo County was ranked 38 out of 47 on County sanitation. Twenty four percent of the Baringo County population uses improved water sources, whereas 39% uses improved sanitation facilities [5]. It is against this background that this study was conceived to assess the household water handling practices in relation to the prevalent water-related diseases in Central and South Baringo.

This study focussed on the arid and semi -arid lands of Eldama Ravine, Mogotio and Marigat sub-counties. Literature shows that the areas are water scarce and the major water sources that augment the river water are the excavated water pans [6]. WHO, in 2008 categorised open water sources without protection as unimproved water sources.

#### **2. Methods**

#### **2.1 Study area**

Central and South Baringo is located at the longitudes and latitudes of 35° 30" 0° E and 0° 30" 0° N (**Figure 1**). Geographically, Central and South Baringo is made up of; Marigat sub-county at the central point of Baringo county, to the south is Eldama Ravine and Mogotio sub-counties which form the Southern part of the County. The population size of the study area was estimated to be 239,405, distributed among the three sub- counties as follows; Mogotio sub county; 60,959, Eldama/Ravine; 105,273 and Marigat Sub-County; 73,173 [7]. The population dwelling in Eldama Ravine and parts of Mogotio Sub-Counties practice mixed farming and marginal mixed farming [7]. The climatic condition ranges from arid to semi-arid lands. The temperatures experienced ranges from a minimum of 10°C to a maximum of 35°C. Annual rainfall varies from 1000 to 1500 mm in the highlands of Eldama Ravine sub-county, and varies between 250 and 500 mm per annum in Mogotio and Marigat sub-county.

#### **2.2 Research design**

A cross sectional survey study was used in conducting this research. The study was conducted among the water pan users utilising the six randomly selected water pans in Central and South Baringo. The water pans used in the study were; protected (Cheraik) and unprotected (Kures, Kapchelukuny, Chepnyorgin, Kaptipsegem and Kinyach) water pans. Protected water pans as used in this study were those water pans that were fenced and had distinct water points for human access and livestock watering, whereas the unprotected water pans were those water pans that had no fence and there was free access for both humans and livestock to the water, increasing the level of contamination.

Nassiuma [8] formula was used to determine the household sample size that was used to administer the questionnaires and conducting the sanitary surveys. A preliminary survey was conducted prior the data collection to be able to identify the total number of households using the water pans. The total number of household were retrieved from the water pan committee members of the various water pans who verified the number of households using the water pans to be a total of 1130 households. (1)

$$n \quad = \text{NC}^2/\text{C}^2 + \text{(N-1)}\,e^2\tag{1}$$

**81**

margin of error(2.9%).

*Map showing the study area.*

**Figure 1.**

located in the study area.

**2.3 Data analysis**

Using the above formula;

*<sup>n</sup>* <sup>=</sup> <sup>1133</sup> <sup>×</sup> 0. <sup>3</sup><sup>2</sup>

water pan users using each water pan as shown in **Table 1**.

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya*

Where, N: represents the total number of households using the water pans (1130). n: represents the study sample size, C: coefficient of variation (30%) e:

*<sup>n</sup>* <sup>=</sup> 98≈100 (3)

100 households were used in conducting the household survey and administration of the household questionnaires. They were proportionately selected from the

Primary data collection was done using observations and scheduled interviews

Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data on the demographic information. Pearson correlation was used in assessing the association of household water handling practices to the prevalence of water related diseases in the study area.

of the selected households. Secondary data on the prevalence of water-related diseases in the study area was collected based on health records from health centres

/0. 3<sup>2</sup> + (1133–1)0.02<sup>2</sup>

(2)

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

**Figure 1.** *Map showing the study area.*

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Like many other ASALs in Kenya, Central and South Baringo is characterised by inadequate access to water and sanitation. The main water sources in the region are unprotected water pans and dam. The existing high morbidity and mortality from communicable diseases in households in ASAL areas can partly be attributed to inadequate access to sanitation [4]. According to 2014 survey by the Ministry of Health (MoH) in Kenya, Baringo County was ranked 38 out of 47 on County sanitation. Twenty four percent of the Baringo County population uses improved water sources, whereas 39% uses improved sanitation facilities [5]. It is against this background that this study was conceived to assess the household water handling practices in relation to the prevalent water-related diseases in Central and South Baringo.

This study focussed on the arid and semi -arid lands of Eldama Ravine, Mogotio and Marigat sub-counties. Literature shows that the areas are water scarce and the major water sources that augment the river water are the excavated water pans [6]. WHO, in 2008 categorised open water sources without protection as unimproved water sources.

Central and South Baringo is located at the longitudes and latitudes of 35°

is made up of; Marigat sub-county at the central point of Baringo county, to the south is Eldama Ravine and Mogotio sub-counties which form the Southern part of the County. The population size of the study area was estimated to be 239,405, distributed among the three sub- counties as follows; Mogotio sub county; 60,959, Eldama/Ravine; 105,273 and Marigat Sub-County; 73,173 [7]. The population dwelling in Eldama Ravine and parts of Mogotio Sub-Counties practice mixed farming and marginal mixed farming [7]. The climatic condition ranges from arid to semi-arid lands. The temperatures experienced ranges from a minimum of 10°C to a maximum of 35°C. Annual rainfall varies from 1000 to 1500 mm in the highlands of Eldama Ravine sub-county, and varies between 250 and 500 mm

A cross sectional survey study was used in conducting this research. The study

Nassiuma [8] formula was used to determine the household sample size that was used to administer the questionnaires and conducting the sanitary surveys. A preliminary survey was conducted prior the data collection to be able to identify the total number of households using the water pans. The total number of household were retrieved from the water pan committee members of the various water pans who verified the number of households using the water pans to be a total of 1130 households.

/*C*<sup>2</sup> + (*N*–1) *e*

2

(1)

was conducted among the water pan users utilising the six randomly selected water pans in Central and South Baringo. The water pans used in the study were; protected (Cheraik) and unprotected (Kures, Kapchelukuny, Chepnyorgin, Kaptipsegem and Kinyach) water pans. Protected water pans as used in this study were those water pans that were fenced and had distinct water points for human access and livestock watering, whereas the unprotected water pans were those water pans that had no fence and there was free access for both humans and livestock to

N (**Figure 1**). Geographically, Central and South Baringo

**80**

**2. Methods**

**2.1 Study area**

E and 0°

**2.2 Research design**

30" 0°

per annum in Mogotio and Marigat sub-county.

the water, increasing the level of contamination.

*<sup>n</sup>* <sup>=</sup> *NC*<sup>2</sup>

30" 0°

Where, N: represents the total number of households using the water pans (1130). n: represents the study sample size, C: coefficient of variation (30%) e: margin of error(2.9%).

Using the above formula;

## и or  $\varepsilon \ll 0.2 \,\prime\prime 0^{\circ}$ .

Using the above formula;

$$n = 1133 \times 0.3^2 / 0.3^2 + (1133 \cdot 1) 0.02^2\tag{2}$$

$$n \quad = \mathfrak{B}\mathfrak{B} \simeq \mathfrak{100}\tag{3}$$

100 households were used in conducting the household survey and administration of the household questionnaires. They were proportionately selected from the water pan users using each water pan as shown in **Table 1**.

Primary data collection was done using observations and scheduled interviews of the selected households. Secondary data on the prevalence of water-related diseases in the study area was collected based on health records from health centres located in the study area.

#### **2.3 Data analysis**

Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data on the demographic information. Pearson correlation was used in assessing the association of household water handling practices to the prevalence of water related diseases in the study area.


#### **Table 1.**

*Showing the proportionate distribution of the sample size per water pan.*

#### **3. Results**

#### **3.1 Demographic information of the respondents**

Out of the 100 respondents randomly selected for this study 35% (n = 35) were male whereas the rest (65%) were female. The majority of the respondents were in the age bracket of 31–40 (32%) and 21–30 (30%) years of age respectively while the rest of the respondents were below 20 years. The age bracket of the respondents depicts a younger and youthful age of most of the resident communities in the study area. This was slightly higher than the national age bracket of 21–30(18.1%) and 31–40(14.5%), respectively in Kenya. The education level of the respondents from the study area is shown below (**Table 2**).

#### **3.2 Water sources in the study area**

Water pans are open surface water and prone to contamination. Seventy-two percent of the households depended on water drawn from pans for cooking, drinking, bathing and livestock (**Figure 2**).

#### **3.3 Time taken to and from the water sources**

This study found out that water pans have eased the time spent by the water pan users within the study area in search of water for cooking and drinking with most of the respondents spending less than an hour on a round trip of water, some could spend as few as 10 minutes on a round trip due to the close proximity of the excavated water pans. (**Figure 3**).


**83**

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya*

**3.4 Household knowledge and attitudes on drinking water**

*A graph showing time taken on a round trip to nearby water sources.*

*A graph showing the water sources for cooking, drinking and livestock use.*

*3.4.1 Household water handling practices*

*3.4.1.1 Drinking water storage containers*

microbial contamination (**Figure 4**).

A Likert scale showed that 33% of the respondents perceived the water they drink from the water pans as good, 19% perceived them as bad since they were covered with algae and has a bad smell and 48% perceived the water they drink to be fair because they had never suffered from any disease while using the water pan water for drinking.

Approximately 71% of the respondents used plastic containers to store their drinking water. This was explained as easily affordable in the market and provided a good option for safe water storage at household level. Nineteen percent of the study population used jerry cans (**Figure 4**), this was explained by the respondents as easy to carry and readily available in the market. The jerry cans are available in various capacities that could also be carried by small children. Six percent used clay pots to store drinking water in their households, as it keeps water cold and reduces

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

**Figure 2.**

**Figure 3.**

#### **Table 2.** *Education level of the respondents.*

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

**Figure 2.**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

**Name of the water pan (site) N(n)** Cheraik 91(8%) Kapchelukuny 396(35%) Kures 46(4%) Chepnyorgin 249(22%) Kaptipsegem 57(5%) Kinyach 294(26%) **Total 1133(100%)**

**3.1 Demographic information of the respondents**

*Showing the proportionate distribution of the sample size per water pan.*

the study area is shown below (**Table 2**).

**3.2 Water sources in the study area**

ing, bathing and livestock (**Figure 2**).

vated water pans. (**Figure 3**).

*Education level of the respondents.*

**3.3 Time taken to and from the water sources**

Out of the 100 respondents randomly selected for this study 35% (n = 35) were male whereas the rest (65%) were female. The majority of the respondents were in the age bracket of 31–40 (32%) and 21–30 (30%) years of age respectively while the rest of the respondents were below 20 years. The age bracket of the respondents depicts a younger and youthful age of most of the resident communities in the study area. This was slightly higher than the national age bracket of 21–30(18.1%) and 31–40(14.5%), respectively in Kenya. The education level of the respondents from

*Key: N is the total number of households using the water pans, whereas, n is the sample size selected from the water pan.*

Water pans are open surface water and prone to contamination. Seventy-two percent of the households depended on water drawn from pans for cooking, drink-

This study found out that water pans have eased the time spent by the water pan users within the study area in search of water for cooking and drinking with most of the respondents spending less than an hour on a round trip of water, some could spend as few as 10 minutes on a round trip due to the close proximity of the exca-

**Highest education level attained Percentage (%)** University 3 Tertiary colleges 11 Secondary schools 35 Primary 45 Did not go to school 6 Total 100

**82**

**Table 2.**

**3. Results**

**Table 1.**

*A graph showing the water sources for cooking, drinking and livestock use.*

**Figure 3.**

*A graph showing time taken on a round trip to nearby water sources.*

#### **3.4 Household knowledge and attitudes on drinking water**

A Likert scale showed that 33% of the respondents perceived the water they drink from the water pans as good, 19% perceived them as bad since they were covered with algae and has a bad smell and 48% perceived the water they drink to be fair because they had never suffered from any disease while using the water pan water for drinking.

#### *3.4.1 Household water handling practices*

#### *3.4.1.1 Drinking water storage containers*

Approximately 71% of the respondents used plastic containers to store their drinking water. This was explained as easily affordable in the market and provided a good option for safe water storage at household level. Nineteen percent of the study population used jerry cans (**Figure 4**), this was explained by the respondents as easy to carry and readily available in the market. The jerry cans are available in various capacities that could also be carried by small children. Six percent used clay pots to store drinking water in their households, as it keeps water cold and reduces microbial contamination (**Figure 4**).

**Figure 4.** *A graph showing drinking water storage containers used by the water pan users.*

#### *3.4.1.2 Location of drinking water storage container in the house*

The storage containers were located in different parts of the room. According to 57% of the respondents their drinking water storage containers were located in the corner of their living room. This was associated to protection of the drinking water storage container from contamination and damage. Seventeen percent of the respondents stored their drinking water storage containers in the kitchen, since it was easily accessed and also used for cooking. Fourteen percent of the respondents stored their drinking water storage containers at the door of the living room, since it was easily accessed and the living room was clean and safe from contaminants.

#### *3.4.1.3 Water handling in the household*

Ninety three percent of the respondents covered their drinking water storage containers. Eighty three percent used tight fitting lids of the containers, 3% covered them using a clean cloth and 4% did not cover their containers. According to this study, the drinking water storage containers were cleaned as per the following frequencies; daily (11%), after 2 days (16%), weekly (42%), and yearly (3%). The cleaning was conducted upon the presence of dirt in the drinking water storage container. Approximately 60% of the households in the study area cleaned their drinking water storage containers. On average 52% of the respondents used soap and water, 25% used sand and water whereas 13% used water only to clean their containers. This was believed to remove dirt in the storage container. Those using sand and water, believed that due to the abrasion nature of the sand, it was a good material that could remove the bio film formation in the drinking water storage container.

#### *3.4.1.4 Mouth sizes of drinking water storage containers and mode of access*

Mouth sizes of the drinking water storage containers varied from one household to another in the study area. The mouth sizes were categorised into narrow, small, wide and medium. The drinking water storage containers that were categorised as **Small** mouth size identified the 5 litre- 35 litre jerry cans that are used in the household for the purpose of storing drinking water in the household. **Medium** mouth sizes were those containers with a minimum volume of 50 litres to a maximum volume of 10,000 litres that had a tap fitted in it used in fetching water. **Wide** mouth sizes were used to identify the buckets that were used to store drinking water in the household.

**85**

**Figure 5.**

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya*

Fifty-five percent of the respondents reported that adults fetched water for the young children; because children were likely to contaminate drinking water upon access. In 38% of the households children fetched their drinking water for themselves increasing the chances of fecally contaminating the household drinking water

Averagely, 34% respondents in the study area treated their drinking water. This was explained as a way of killing the pathogens in drinking water. On average 19% of the respondents boiled their water before drinking. This was attributed to the existing knowledge of killing the diseases causing pathogens in water before consumption. On average 11% of the respondents reported using chlorine and its constituents (5.25% NaOCl) to treat their drinking water, sodium hypochlorite was preferred by the respondents due to the residual effects they have in killing micro-

Data from household questionnaires and observation schedules indicated that approximately 89% of the households disposed of their household solid waste through burning, thus there was no waste lying at the resident compounds at the time of visit. Eleven percent of the respondents reported throwing their solid wastes away in the open; it was observed that the latter had solid wastes lying

Findings from this study indicated that 31% of the respondents washed their hands before eating, because of cultural beliefs and taboos. Seventeen percent washed their hands after visiting the toilet and reported to have been trained by the public health officers, after taking a sick child to the hospital. Other critical hand washing times identified in the study included; during cooking (4%) and after handling children faeces (9%).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

*3.4.2 Household water treatment in the study area*

(**Figure 5**).

bial contaminants.

*3.4.4 Hand washing*

*3.4.3 Household solid wastes*

within the proximity of their compounds.

*Figure showing methods used to access drinking water from the storage containers.*

#### *Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

Fifty-five percent of the respondents reported that adults fetched water for the young children; because children were likely to contaminate drinking water upon access. In 38% of the households children fetched their drinking water for themselves increasing the chances of fecally contaminating the household drinking water (**Figure 5**).

#### *3.4.2 Household water treatment in the study area*

Averagely, 34% respondents in the study area treated their drinking water. This was explained as a way of killing the pathogens in drinking water. On average 19% of the respondents boiled their water before drinking. This was attributed to the existing knowledge of killing the diseases causing pathogens in water before consumption. On average 11% of the respondents reported using chlorine and its constituents (5.25% NaOCl) to treat their drinking water, sodium hypochlorite was preferred by the respondents due to the residual effects they have in killing microbial contaminants.

#### *3.4.3 Household solid wastes*

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

*3.4.1.2 Location of drinking water storage container in the house*

*A graph showing drinking water storage containers used by the water pan users.*

safe from contaminants.

**Figure 4.**

*3.4.1.3 Water handling in the household*

tion in the drinking water storage container.

*3.4.1.4 Mouth sizes of drinking water storage containers and mode of access*

Mouth sizes of the drinking water storage containers varied from one household to another in the study area. The mouth sizes were categorised into narrow, small, wide and medium. The drinking water storage containers that were categorised as **Small** mouth size identified the 5 litre- 35 litre jerry cans that are used in the household for the purpose of storing drinking water in the household. **Medium** mouth sizes were those containers with a minimum volume of 50 litres to a maximum volume of 10,000 litres that had a tap fitted in it used in fetching water. **Wide** mouth sizes were used to identify the buckets that were used to store drinking water in the household.

The storage containers were located in different parts of the room. According to 57% of the respondents their drinking water storage containers were located in the corner of their living room. This was associated to protection of the drinking water storage container from contamination and damage. Seventeen percent of the respondents stored their drinking water storage containers in the kitchen, since it was easily accessed and also used for cooking. Fourteen percent of the respondents stored their drinking water storage containers at the door of the living room, since it was easily accessed and the living room was clean and

Ninety three percent of the respondents covered their drinking water storage containers. Eighty three percent used tight fitting lids of the containers, 3% covered them using a clean cloth and 4% did not cover their containers. According to this study, the drinking water storage containers were cleaned as per the following frequencies; daily (11%), after 2 days (16%), weekly (42%), and yearly (3%). The cleaning was conducted upon the presence of dirt in the drinking water storage container. Approximately 60% of the households in the study area cleaned their drinking water storage containers. On average 52% of the respondents used soap and water, 25% used sand and water whereas 13% used water only to clean their containers. This was believed to remove dirt in the storage container. Those using sand and water, believed that due to the abrasion nature of the sand, it was a good material that could remove the bio film forma-

**84**

Data from household questionnaires and observation schedules indicated that approximately 89% of the households disposed of their household solid waste through burning, thus there was no waste lying at the resident compounds at the time of visit. Eleven percent of the respondents reported throwing their solid wastes away in the open; it was observed that the latter had solid wastes lying within the proximity of their compounds.

#### *3.4.4 Hand washing*

Findings from this study indicated that 31% of the respondents washed their hands before eating, because of cultural beliefs and taboos. Seventeen percent washed their hands after visiting the toilet and reported to have been trained by the public health officers, after taking a sick child to the hospital. Other critical hand washing times identified in the study included; during cooking (4%) and after handling children faeces (9%).


**Table 3.**

*The sources of information on personal hygiene in the study area.*

The study results further indicated that respondents used the following materials to wash their hands; water only (13%), soap and water (86%) and mud and water (1%).

#### *3.4.5 Sources of hygiene awareness*

Fifty nine percent of the respondents had received information on personal and food hygiene, whereas, 27 and 13% indicated that they had received information on sanitation and hand washing. However, 12% of the respondents indicated that they had not received any hygiene awareness during the past 1 year (**Table 3**).

#### **4. Discussion**

The 2014 National Demographic and Health Survey showed that 5% of Kenyans had no education, 23.4% had primary level and 45.4% had secondary school education and above. From this survey, the level of education in Central and South Baringo was lower as compared to the national figures. The income level of the resident communities in the study area were far much below a dollar per day, and are categorised among the lowest wealth quintile in Kenya, reported to be at 14.8% [9].

Findings from related studies indicated that 51% of the respondents in Kakamega obtained their water from open sources that are prone to contamination [10], In Central and South Baringo resident communities reported using the water pans for sourcing their household water for use, since it was the only available water source within their reach. In Tanzania, a study documented that only 49.7% of the studied population had access to improved water sources [11], with the remaining portion dependent on unimproved water sources. Use of unimproved water sources for cooking and drinking at the household exposes the household members to consumption of fecally contaminated water causing water related diseases.

Findings from the current study indicated that respondents spent less time in accessing water compared to other studies. Afullo et al. [12] in their study found out that averagely 26.7% of the Kenyan households in ASALs spent under 30 minutes on a round walking trip to and from water sources. Another study by Mohammed et al. [6] found that 41.2% of the respondents in Dukem town Ethiopia spent less than 30 minutes in one round walking trip to obtain drinking water for their households.

**87**

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya*

Despite the efforts to increase water accessibility to the study population, some

With respect to the householder's perception towards water handling Our study findings showed similarities with those of Baig et al. [14] and Sibiya and Gambi [15]. A study in Northern Pakistan revealed that health was not a householder's areas of concern, since they had other pressing needs and that people were not concerned about the poor quality of drinking water as a result of floods [14]. Another study conducted in Nepal revealed that there was lack of knowledge and practices in

rural areas regarding water source and sanitary facilities maintenance [16].

household drinking water from the risk of microbial contamination.

tamination of drinking water in the households among communities.

The findings of this study contrast greatly with those of Uwimphuwe et al. [18], in their study in Rwanda that showed 67% of the respondents treated their water. This study was comparable to other studies by Onyango and Angienda [5] in Western Kenya found out domestic water treatment practices to include boiling and use of sodium hypochlorite. Wasonga et al. [19] in their study found out that commonly used water treatment options in Nyakach, Kisumu County included use of chlorine. Household water treatment is significant in the reduction of water related diseases such as diarrhoea. Onyango and Angienda [5] study in Western

In terms of household water storage, the current study findings are similar to those of Mohammed et al. [6] who found out that most respondents (74.4%) in Dukem town used plastic jerry cans container to store drinking water. Safe water storage at the household level helps in preventing microbial water contamination causing water related diseases at the household level. This study finding contrasts with that of a study done in Kakamega that found out that respondents stored their water in different places in the house to make it cool for drinking [10]. Location of drinking water storage containers has not been of householder's concern in regard to microbial contamination of the drinking water, but in making the water cool for drinking. These findings were comparable to Mohammed et al. [6], who found out that 93.2% of the respondents covered their drinking water storage containers. Covering of drinking water storage containers provided a safer way of preventing

Twenty nine percent of the households stored their drinking water in jerry cans with small mouth sizes. The containers were tilted to pour water, preventing contamination and was regarded a safer way of accessing drinking water. Forty nine percent of the households used a tin to fetch water from the drinking water storage container; this allowed the household members to place hands and or cups into the stored drinking water increasing the risk of faecal contamination of drinking water. Eighteen percent of the households used the tap fitted in the container to fetch drinking water from the containers, this was the safest way of accessing drinking water without contaminating the water in the storage container during water access. A study conducted in Nyakach in Kisumu found out that 4.8% of the respondents stored their water in a storage container which had a tap in it [17]. This study recorded the highest number of household using safe means of accessing drinking water from the containers. Point of use contamination of water has been perceived to be the leading microbial con-

of the residents of Central and South Baringo are still spending a lot of time in search of this valuable resource. These study findings were in agreement with other study findings that found out that 42.8% of the households in Kenyan ASALs took more than 1 hour to fetch water in a one round trip. However, in this study majority spent 30 minutes and below on a round trip [12]. In Nakuru municipality 55.4% of the respondents were documented to spend more than 1 hour. in one round trip of fetching water, however, this study recorded 44% households spending 1 hour or more on a round trip of water accessibility [13]. Mohammed et al. [6] found that an average of 17.6% of the respondents took more than 30 minutes to obtain drinking

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

water on a round trip.

#### *Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

Despite the efforts to increase water accessibility to the study population, some of the residents of Central and South Baringo are still spending a lot of time in search of this valuable resource. These study findings were in agreement with other study findings that found out that 42.8% of the households in Kenyan ASALs took more than 1 hour to fetch water in a one round trip. However, in this study majority spent 30 minutes and below on a round trip [12]. In Nakuru municipality 55.4% of the respondents were documented to spend more than 1 hour. in one round trip of fetching water, however, this study recorded 44% households spending 1 hour or more on a round trip of water accessibility [13]. Mohammed et al. [6] found that an average of 17.6% of the respondents took more than 30 minutes to obtain drinking water on a round trip.

With respect to the householder's perception towards water handling Our study findings showed similarities with those of Baig et al. [14] and Sibiya and Gambi [15]. A study in Northern Pakistan revealed that health was not a householder's areas of concern, since they had other pressing needs and that people were not concerned about the poor quality of drinking water as a result of floods [14]. Another study conducted in Nepal revealed that there was lack of knowledge and practices in rural areas regarding water source and sanitary facilities maintenance [16].

In terms of household water storage, the current study findings are similar to those of Mohammed et al. [6] who found out that most respondents (74.4%) in Dukem town used plastic jerry cans container to store drinking water. Safe water storage at the household level helps in preventing microbial water contamination causing water related diseases at the household level. This study finding contrasts with that of a study done in Kakamega that found out that respondents stored their water in different places in the house to make it cool for drinking [10]. Location of drinking water storage containers has not been of householder's concern in regard to microbial contamination of the drinking water, but in making the water cool for drinking. These findings were comparable to Mohammed et al. [6], who found out that 93.2% of the respondents covered their drinking water storage containers. Covering of drinking water storage containers provided a safer way of preventing household drinking water from the risk of microbial contamination.

Twenty nine percent of the households stored their drinking water in jerry cans with small mouth sizes. The containers were tilted to pour water, preventing contamination and was regarded a safer way of accessing drinking water. Forty nine percent of the households used a tin to fetch water from the drinking water storage container; this allowed the household members to place hands and or cups into the stored drinking water increasing the risk of faecal contamination of drinking water. Eighteen percent of the households used the tap fitted in the container to fetch drinking water from the containers, this was the safest way of accessing drinking water without contaminating the water in the storage container during water access. A study conducted in Nyakach in Kisumu found out that 4.8% of the respondents stored their water in a storage container which had a tap in it [17]. This study recorded the highest number of household using safe means of accessing drinking water from the containers. Point of use contamination of water has been perceived to be the leading microbial contamination of drinking water in the households among communities.

The findings of this study contrast greatly with those of Uwimphuwe et al. [18], in their study in Rwanda that showed 67% of the respondents treated their water. This study was comparable to other studies by Onyango and Angienda [5] in Western Kenya found out domestic water treatment practices to include boiling and use of sodium hypochlorite. Wasonga et al. [19] in their study found out that commonly used water treatment options in Nyakach, Kisumu County included use of chlorine. Household water treatment is significant in the reduction of water related diseases such as diarrhoea. Onyango and Angienda [5] study in Western

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

*The sources of information on personal hygiene in the study area.*

*3.4.5 Sources of hygiene awareness*

**4. Discussion**

**Table 3.**

to be at 14.8% [9].

The study results further indicated that respondents used the following materials to wash

Fifty nine percent of the respondents had received information on personal and food hygiene, whereas, 27 and 13% indicated that they had received information on sanitation and hand washing. However, 12% of the respondents indicated that they

their hands; water only (13%), soap and water (86%) and mud and water (1%).

**Sources of hygiene advice Percentage (%)** Public Health Officer 28 APHIA II 13 APHIA Plus 9 Clinics 3 School 2 SIDA 1 World Vision 1 WHO 1 Never heard 42 Total 100

had not received any hygiene awareness during the past 1 year (**Table 3**).

The 2014 National Demographic and Health Survey showed that 5% of Kenyans had no education, 23.4% had primary level and 45.4% had secondary school education and above. From this survey, the level of education in Central and South Baringo was lower as compared to the national figures. The income level of the resident communities in the study area were far much below a dollar per day, and are categorised among the lowest wealth quintile in Kenya, reported

Findings from related studies indicated that 51% of the respondents in Kakamega obtained their water from open sources that are prone to contamination [10], In Central and South Baringo resident communities reported using the water pans for sourcing their household water for use, since it was the only available water source within their reach. In Tanzania, a study documented that only 49.7% of the studied population had access to improved water sources [11], with the remaining portion dependent on unimproved water sources. Use of unimproved water sources for cooking and drinking at the household exposes the household members to consumption of fecally contaminated water causing water related diseases.

Findings from the current study indicated that respondents spent less time in accessing water compared to other studies. Afullo et al. [12] in their study found out that averagely 26.7% of the Kenyan households in ASALs spent under 30 minutes on a round walking trip to and from water sources. Another study by Mohammed et al. [6] found that 41.2% of the respondents in Dukem town Ethiopia spent less than 30 minutes in one round walking trip to obtain drinking water for their households.

**86**

Kenya deduced that diarrhoea cases were significantly reduced as a result of domestic water treatment. A systematic review and Meta-analysis by Struntz et al. [16] revealed a reduced prevalence of soil transmitted helminths infection as a result of using treated water from a pre-intervention prevalence rates of 68.3% to the post intervention prevalence rates of 43.95%. Studies by Kipyegen et al. [20], revealed that high parasitic infections in Baringo County were associated with inadequate water availability, poor sanitation and lack of water treatment practices in the households.

Hand washing is important in the reduction of communicable diseases. This lack of basic hand washing hygiene adversely affects household water quality as the household members dip their hands in storage containers to access water for household tasks. This study finding contrasted greatly to observations made by Uwimphuwe et al. [18] in their study in Masaka Rwanda, in which they found that 97% of the respondents washed their hands before eating and 20% of the respondents washed their hands before preparing food and 31% of the respondents washed their hands after handling babies. The hand-washing practice is poorly observed in the study area. This study finding was comparable to a study conducted in Masaka Rwanda that indicated that the respondents used soap and water (87%), ash and water (1%) and water only (12%) to wash their hands [19]. Our findings were consistent with those of Wasonga et al. [19] that found out that only 7% of the respondents in Nyakach, Kisumu County reported using soap to wash their hands after visiting the toilets.

Despite the high level of household waste management observed in the study area, 11% of the unmanaged household solid waste can cause serious health problems during the rainy season, as the waste are carried off by run-off to the water pans, thus increasing the level of microbial contamination. Haphazard disposal of solid wastes provide breeding sites for disease vectors such as mosquitoes and flies. This study contrasted with that by Wasonga et al. [19] that observed that 37% of the respondents owned dumpsite within their homestead. Another study by Karija and Shihua [21] linked the high prevalence of typhoid, cholera and diarrhoea in Juba, South Sudan to solid wastes carried off by run-off during the rainy seasons.

Finally, our study findings were consistent with those of Wasonga et al. [19],who indicated that 41.5% of the respondents reported community health workers/ clinics were their main source of information on hand washing, whereas 23.4, 20.2 and 9.6% indicated that media, schools and community gatherings, respectively, as their sources of information. Hygiene practices at home have been noted to provide a clean environment for children, thus reducing the threats to their health and provide the best chance of a prosperous living [19, 22–24].

#### **5. Conclusions**

The water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) information received by the resident communities is inadequate in reducing the occurrences of water related diseases that occur as a result of improved household hygiene. Increasing the level of community awareness on adequate household, personal and behavioural hygiene is necessary in reducing the prevalent water related diseases in the study area.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The authors wish to thank all the participants who took part in this study. The study was funded by Egerton University Division of Research under the Dryland Research Flagship Project (Chemeron Dryland Research Training and Ecotourism Centre).

**89**

provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*, George M. Ogendi1,2, Wilkister N. Moturi1

1 Department of Environmental Science, Egerton University, Kenya

\*Address all correspondence to: kuruiedith89@gmail.com

2 Dryland Research Training and Ecotourism Centre, Chemeron, Kenya

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya*

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication

The participants were asked for consent prior to gathering of information and anonymity as well as confidentiality was highly maintained while carrying

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

**Conflict of interest**

of this paper.

out the study.

**Author details**

and Dishon O. Nyawanga1

Edith J. Kurui1

**Ethical approval**

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

#### **Conflict of interest**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

households.

Kenya deduced that diarrhoea cases were significantly reduced as a result of domestic water treatment. A systematic review and Meta-analysis by Struntz et al. [16] revealed a reduced prevalence of soil transmitted helminths infection as a result of using treated water from a pre-intervention prevalence rates of 68.3% to the post intervention prevalence rates of 43.95%. Studies by Kipyegen et al. [20], revealed that high parasitic infections in Baringo County were associated with inadequate water availability, poor sanitation and lack of water treatment practices in the

Hand washing is important in the reduction of communicable diseases. This lack of basic hand washing hygiene adversely affects household water quality as the household members dip their hands in storage containers to access water for household tasks. This study finding contrasted greatly to observations made by Uwimphuwe et al. [18] in their study in Masaka Rwanda, in which they found that 97% of the respondents washed their hands before eating and 20% of the respondents washed their hands before preparing food and 31% of the respondents washed their hands after handling babies. The hand-washing practice is poorly observed in the study area. This study finding was comparable to a study conducted in Masaka Rwanda that indicated that the respondents used soap and water (87%), ash and water (1%) and water only (12%) to wash their hands [19]. Our findings were consistent with those of Wasonga et al. [19] that found out that only 7% of the respondents in Nyakach, Kisumu County reported using soap to wash their hands after visiting the toilets. Despite the high level of household waste management observed in the study area, 11% of the unmanaged household solid waste can cause serious health problems during the rainy season, as the waste are carried off by run-off to the water pans, thus increasing the level of microbial contamination. Haphazard disposal of solid wastes provide breeding sites for disease vectors such as mosquitoes and flies. This study contrasted with that by Wasonga et al. [19] that observed that 37% of the respondents owned dumpsite within their homestead. Another study by Karija and Shihua [21] linked the high prevalence of typhoid, cholera and diarrhoea in Juba, South Sudan to solid wastes carried off by run-off during the rainy seasons.

Finally, our study findings were consistent with those of Wasonga et al. [19],who

The water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) information received by the resident communities is inadequate in reducing the occurrences of water related diseases that occur as a result of improved household hygiene. Increasing the level of community awareness on adequate household, personal and behavioural hygiene is necessary in reducing the prevalent water related diseases in the study area.

The authors wish to thank all the participants who took part in this study. The study was funded by Egerton University Division of Research under the Dryland Research Flagship Project (Chemeron Dryland Research Training and Ecotourism Centre).

indicated that 41.5% of the respondents reported community health workers/ clinics were their main source of information on hand washing, whereas 23.4, 20.2 and 9.6% indicated that media, schools and community gatherings, respectively, as their sources of information. Hygiene practices at home have been noted to provide a clean environment for children, thus reducing the threats to their health and

provide the best chance of a prosperous living [19, 22–24].

**88**

**5. Conclusions**

**Acknowledgements**

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

### **Ethical approval**

The participants were asked for consent prior to gathering of information and anonymity as well as confidentiality was highly maintained while carrying out the study.

#### **Author details**

Edith J. Kurui1 \*, George M. Ogendi1,2, Wilkister N. Moturi1 and Dishon O. Nyawanga1

1 Department of Environmental Science, Egerton University, Kenya

2 Dryland Research Training and Ecotourism Centre, Chemeron, Kenya

\*Address all correspondence to: kuruiedith89@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Bosch C, Hommann K, Rubio G, Sadoff C, Travers L. Water, sanitation and poverty. A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 2000. Available from: ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net. in/public/wes/cr/res29060702.pdf\ http://www.intussen.info/OldSite/ Documenten/Noord/Internationaal/ WB/PRSP Sourcebook/18 Water, sanitation and poverty.pdf

[2] WHO/UNICEF. 25 Years Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press; 2015

[3] WHO. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Incorporating 1st and 2nd Agenda. Vol. 1. Recommendations. 3rd ed. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2008

[4] Ministry of Health. Baringo County: Health at a Glance. 2012. Available from: Countyposter\_factsheet\_ Baringo\_Final\_A3\_Pdf: http://www. healthpolicyproject.com/pubs/291/ [Accessed: July 23, 2014]

[5] Onyango DM, Angienda PO. Epidemiology of waterborne diarrheal diseases among children aged 6-36 months old in Busia-Western Kenya. Journal of World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. 2010;**37**:1158-1165

[6] Mohammed AI, Zungu LI, Hoque ME. Access to safe drinking water and availability of environmental sanitation facilities among Dukem Town households in Ethiopia. Journal of Human Ecology. 2013;**41**:131-138

[7] Kenya Meteorological Service. The Outlook for the October–November– December Rainy Season in Kenya and Review of the Performance of the 2014 March–April–May Long Rains and June–July–August Seasons. Nairobi,

Kenya: Kenya Meteorological Service (KMS); 2014. pp. 1-6

[8] Nassiuma DK. Survey sampling: Theory and methods. Njoro, Kenya: Egerton University Press; 2000

[9] KNBS. Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2014: Key Indicators. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics; 2015

[10] Kioko KJ, Obiri JF. Household attitudes and knowledge on drinking water enhance water hazards in peri urban communities in Western Kenya. Jamba: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies. 2012;**4**:41-49

[11] Briceno B, Yusuf A. Scaling up handwashing and rural sanitation: Findings from a baseline survey in Tanzania. Water and sanitation program technical paper; WSP. World Bank, Washington, DC. 2012.© World Bank; 2012. License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/17379

[12] Afullo AO, Danga BO, Odhiambo F. Implications of time to water source on water use in the arid and semi-arid land counties of Kenya. International Journal of Water. 2014;**8**(4):381-400

[13] Cherutich J, Maitho T, Omware Q. Water access and sustainable rural livelihoods: A case of elementaita division in Nakuru County, Kenya. International Journal of Science, Technology and Society. 2015;**3**(1):9-23. DOI: 10.11648/j.ijsts.20150301.12

[14] Baig SA, Xu X, Khan R. Microbial water quality risks to public health: Potable water assessment for a flood affected town in Northern Pakistan. Rural and Remote Health. 2012;**12**:1296

[15] Sibiya EJ, Gumbi RJ. Knowledge, attitude and practise (KAP) survey on

**91**

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya*

of Applied Science and Technology.

[22] Wolfgang YT, Veronique M, Bernard YO, Arsène SM, Houenou PV. Effects of poor sanitation on public health: Case of Yopougon town (Abidjan). African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2013;**7**(3):87-92. DOI:

2013;**3**(4):87-99

10.5897/AJEST12.058

Statistics; 2009

USA; 2014

[23] KNBS. Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume 1A: Population by Administrative Units. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya National Bureau of

[24] WHO/UNICEF Joint Water Supply, & Sanitation Monitoring Programme. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation. 2014 Update. New York,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

water, sanitation and hygiene in selected schools in Vhembo Districts, Limpopo South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public

Health. 2013;**10**:2282-2295

journal.pmed.1001620

2009. pp. 1-66

[16] Struntz EC, Addis GD, Stocks EM, Oyden S, Utzinger J, Freeman CM. Water sanitation, hygiene and soil transmitted helminthe infection: A systematic review and meta analysis. Journal of Plos Medicine. 2014;**11**(3):e1001620. DOI: 10.1371/

[17] Wekesa M, Karani I. A review of the status of emergency water trucking in the arid and semi-arid districts of Kenya. Financed by ECHO, commissioned by FAO for the Water and Environmental Sanitation Coordination.

[18] Uwimphuwe M, Reddy P, Barrat G, Bux F. The impact of hygiene and localised treatment on the quality of drinking water in Masaka, Rwanda. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 2014;**49**:4434-4440. DOI: 10:1080/10934529-2014.854674

[19] Wasonga J, Olang'o CO, Kioli F. Improving household knowledge and attitude on water, sanitation and hygiene practices through school health programme in Nyakach Kisumu County in Western Kenya. Journal of Anthropology. 2014;**2014**:6. Article ID 958481. DOI: 10.1155/2014/958481

[20] Kipyegen CK, Shivairo RS, Odhiambo RO. Prevalence of intestinal parasites among HIV patients in Baringo, Kenya. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare.

[21] Karija MK. Shihua Q. The impact of poor municipal solid waste management practices and sanitation status on water quality and public health in cities of the least developed countries: The case of juba South Sudan. International Journal

2012;**3**(14):21-26

*Household Water Handling Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80392*

water, sanitation and hygiene in selected schools in Vhembo Districts, Limpopo South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2013;**10**:2282-2295

[16] Struntz EC, Addis GD, Stocks EM, Oyden S, Utzinger J, Freeman CM. Water sanitation, hygiene and soil transmitted helminthe infection: A systematic review and meta analysis. Journal of Plos Medicine. 2014;**11**(3):e1001620. DOI: 10.1371/ journal.pmed.1001620

[17] Wekesa M, Karani I. A review of the status of emergency water trucking in the arid and semi-arid districts of Kenya. Financed by ECHO, commissioned by FAO for the Water and Environmental Sanitation Coordination. 2009. pp. 1-66

[18] Uwimphuwe M, Reddy P, Barrat G, Bux F. The impact of hygiene and localised treatment on the quality of drinking water in Masaka, Rwanda. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 2014;**49**:4434-4440. DOI: 10:1080/10934529-2014.854674

[19] Wasonga J, Olang'o CO, Kioli F. Improving household knowledge and attitude on water, sanitation and hygiene practices through school health programme in Nyakach Kisumu County in Western Kenya. Journal of Anthropology. 2014;**2014**:6. Article ID 958481. DOI: 10.1155/2014/958481

[20] Kipyegen CK, Shivairo RS, Odhiambo RO. Prevalence of intestinal parasites among HIV patients in Baringo, Kenya. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare. 2012;**3**(14):21-26

[21] Karija MK. Shihua Q. The impact of poor municipal solid waste management practices and sanitation status on water quality and public health in cities of the least developed countries: The case of juba South Sudan. International Journal

of Applied Science and Technology. 2013;**3**(4):87-99

[22] Wolfgang YT, Veronique M, Bernard YO, Arsène SM, Houenou PV. Effects of poor sanitation on public health: Case of Yopougon town (Abidjan). African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2013;**7**(3):87-92. DOI: 10.5897/AJEST12.058

[23] KNBS. Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume 1A: Population by Administrative Units. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics; 2009

[24] WHO/UNICEF Joint Water Supply, & Sanitation Monitoring Programme. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation. 2014 Update. New York, USA; 2014

**90**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Kenya: Kenya Meteorological Service

[8] Nassiuma DK. Survey sampling: Theory and methods. Njoro, Kenya: Egerton University Press; 2000

[9] KNBS. Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2014: Key Indicators. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya National Bureau

[10] Kioko KJ, Obiri JF. Household attitudes and knowledge on drinking water enhance water hazards in peri urban communities in Western Kenya. Jamba: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies.

[11] Briceno B, Yusuf A. Scaling up handwashing and rural sanitation: Findings from a baseline survey in Tanzania. Water and sanitation program technical paper; WSP. World Bank, Washington, DC. 2012.© World Bank; 2012. License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/

[12] Afullo AO, Danga BO, Odhiambo F. Implications of time to water source on water use in the arid and semi-arid land counties of Kenya. International Journal

[13] Cherutich J, Maitho T, Omware Q. Water access and sustainable rural livelihoods: A case of elementaita division in Nakuru County, Kenya. International Journal of Science, Technology and Society. 2015;**3**(1):9-23.

DOI: 10.11648/j.ijsts.20150301.12

[14] Baig SA, Xu X, Khan R. Microbial water quality risks to public health: Potable water assessment for a flood affected town in Northern Pakistan. Rural and Remote Health. 2012;**12**:1296

[15] Sibiya EJ, Gumbi RJ. Knowledge, attitude and practise (KAP) survey on

(KMS); 2014. pp. 1-6

of Statistics; 2015

2012;**4**:41-49

handle/10986/17379

of Water. 2014;**8**(4):381-400

[1] Bosch C, Hommann K, Rubio G, Sadoff C, Travers L. Water, sanitation and poverty. A Sourcebook for Poverty Reduction Strategies. Washington, DC: The World Bank. 2000. Available from: ftp://ftp.solutionexchange.net. in/public/wes/cr/res29060702.pdf\ http://www.intussen.info/OldSite/ Documenten/Noord/Internationaal/ WB/PRSP Sourcebook/18 Water, sanitation and poverty.pdf

[2] WHO/UNICEF. 25 Years Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. Geneva,

[3] WHO. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, Incorporating 1st and 2nd Agenda. Vol. 1. Recommendations. 3rd ed. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO;

[4] Ministry of Health. Baringo County: Health at a Glance. 2012. Available from: Countyposter\_factsheet\_ Baringo\_Final\_A3\_Pdf: http://www. healthpolicyproject.com/pubs/291/

Switzerland: WHO Press; 2015

[Accessed: July 23, 2014]

2010;**37**:1158-1165

[5] Onyango DM, Angienda PO. Epidemiology of waterborne diarrheal

diseases among children aged 6-36 months old in Busia-Western Kenya. Journal of World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.

[6] Mohammed AI, Zungu LI, Hoque ME. Access to safe drinking water and availability of environmental

households in Ethiopia. Journal of Human Ecology. 2013;**41**:131-138

sanitation facilities among Dukem Town

[7] Kenya Meteorological Service. The Outlook for the October–November– December Rainy Season in Kenya and Review of the Performance of the 2014 March–April–May Long Rains and June–July–August Seasons. Nairobi,

2008

**References**

**93**

**Chapter 7**

**Abstract**

field test kits, SDGs, MDGs

**1. Introduction**

Water Quality Monitoring

Borne Diseases in the State of

Madhya Pradesh, India, and Its

Implication on the Sustainable

It is estimated that around 37.7 million Indians are affected by water-borne diseases annually, 1.5 million children are estimated to die of diarrhoea alone, and 73 million working days are lost due to water-borne disease each year. The resulting economic burden is estimated at \$600 million a year. Owning the largest share, India has a significant role to play in achieving global Sustainable Development Goals. In such scenario, monitoring of drinking water quality and its improvement plays a significant role in ensuring public health and reducing economic burden. Taking cue from this, a study was designed to assess the efficiency of water quality laboratories established under the National Rural Drinking Water Programme in the State of Madhya Pradesh. In the state, which tops the list of states in the country with the highest infant mortality rate (IMR), the drinking water quality assessment infrastructure is not in a position to monitor the water quality in rural areas. The study assessed that none of the 56 laboratories was able to perform a minimum of 3000 tests per year (annual analysis load) in the state for monitoring water quality. This paper presents the findings of the statewide status of water quality in rural areas and also qualitative assessment of 56 water quality laboratories in 16 districts.

**Keywords:** water quality, water-borne diseases, water quality laboratories,

Sources of good quality water for drinking and domestic use, whether surface or groundwater, are fundamental to human health. Water quality is naturally influenced by the climatological and geochemical location of the water body through temperature, rainfall, leaching and runoff of elements from the Earth's crust. Consumption of water containing pathogens or elements that are potentially toxic can lead to health impacts ranging from discomfort to death [1]. Though the global

Development Goals (SDGs)

*Abhishek Parsai and Varsha Rokade*

Infrastructure for Tackling Water-

#### **Chapter 7**

Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State of Madhya Pradesh, India, and Its Implication on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

*Abhishek Parsai and Varsha Rokade*

### **Abstract**

It is estimated that around 37.7 million Indians are affected by water-borne diseases annually, 1.5 million children are estimated to die of diarrhoea alone, and 73 million working days are lost due to water-borne disease each year. The resulting economic burden is estimated at \$600 million a year. Owning the largest share, India has a significant role to play in achieving global Sustainable Development Goals. In such scenario, monitoring of drinking water quality and its improvement plays a significant role in ensuring public health and reducing economic burden. Taking cue from this, a study was designed to assess the efficiency of water quality laboratories established under the National Rural Drinking Water Programme in the State of Madhya Pradesh. In the state, which tops the list of states in the country with the highest infant mortality rate (IMR), the drinking water quality assessment infrastructure is not in a position to monitor the water quality in rural areas. The study assessed that none of the 56 laboratories was able to perform a minimum of 3000 tests per year (annual analysis load) in the state for monitoring water quality. This paper presents the findings of the statewide status of water quality in rural areas and also qualitative assessment of 56 water quality laboratories in 16 districts.

**Keywords:** water quality, water-borne diseases, water quality laboratories, field test kits, SDGs, MDGs

#### **1. Introduction**

Sources of good quality water for drinking and domestic use, whether surface or groundwater, are fundamental to human health. Water quality is naturally influenced by the climatological and geochemical location of the water body through temperature, rainfall, leaching and runoff of elements from the Earth's crust. Consumption of water containing pathogens or elements that are potentially toxic can lead to health impacts ranging from discomfort to death [1]. Though the global

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target for drinking water was met in 2010, 663 million people still lack improved drinking water sources. 96% of the global urban population uses improved drinking water sources, compared with 84% of the rural population. 84% of the people who don't have access to improved water lives in rural areas, where they live principally through subsistence agriculture. Eight of 10 people without improved drinking water sources still live in rural areas. In developing countries, as much as 80% of illnesses are linked to poor water and sanitation conditions [2]. Besides the current target (achieved) was based solely on access to an improved facility, the definition of "improved" does not take into account other important parameters such as drinking water quality, adequacy of quantities available for domestic or productive uses, distance to water source, time spent to access and use facilities, reliability and maintenance of services, affordability and social barriers to access and safe disposal and treatment of wastewater. Furthermore, any recalibration of targets and/or adoption of stricter definitions of improved would result in significantly higher estimates of population receiving services below a basic standard [2].

With 78.5 million people, India is at the top amongst countries with the largest number of people without access to safe water. Most of those people are living on around £3 a day. India is also amongst the top ten worst countries for household water access. Besides these distinctions, the country has the State of Madhya Pradesh with the highest infant mortality rate (IMR) (57 deaths of children less than one year of age per 1000 live births) [3], which is worse than some of the African countries often cited for poor health indices. According to the World Bank, the IMR for Rwanda for the same year was 33, Ethiopia 43 and Zambia 45. Increased access to improved water sources is significantly associated with decreased under-five mortality rate, decreased odds of under-five mortality due to diarrhoea, decreased IMR and decreased odds of MMR. Access to water and sanitation independently contributes to child and maternal mortality outcomes [4]. If the world is to seriously address the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of reducing child and maternal mortality, then improved water and sanitation accesses are key strategies.

#### **2. Policy framework governing water quality in rural India**

The 12th Five-Year Plan (2012–2017) [5] has placed a greater thrust on coverage of the water quality-affected habitations, in order to address water quality issues in rural areas. As per the NRDWP guidelines (water quality) [6], 20% of the annual NRDWP funds are allocated for tackling water quality problems to enable rural communities to have access to potable drinking water. The NRDWP guidelines further stipulate that 3% of NRDWP funds on a 100% central share basis are to be used for water quality monitoring and surveillance activities at the field level and for setting up and operating water quality testing laboratories at the state, district and sub-district levels.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has specified drinking water quality standards in India to provide safe drinking water to the people. As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, IS-10500-2012 [7], water is defined as unfit for drinking purpose if it is bacteriologically contaminated (presence of indicator bacteria particularly *E. coli*, viruses, etc.) or if chemical contamination exceeds maximum permissible limits (e.g. excess fluoride [>1.5 mg/l], total dissolved solids (TDS) [>2000 mg/l], iron [>0.3 mg/l], manganese [>0.3 mg/l], arsenic [>0.05 mg/l], nitrates [>45 mg/l], etc.).

The Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol of the Government of India [8, 10, 11] describes specific requirements for monitoring drinking water

**95**

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State…*

**No. of habitations where no source has been tested**

**Number Number % Number % Number %**

127,169 22,924 18.03 69,918 54.98 32,052 25.20

India 1,692,133 113,781 6.72 1,088,514 64.33 155,583 9.19

16 districts 59,087 11,217 18.98 34,231 57.93 14,545 24.62

**No. of habitations where 75% of sources have been tested**

**No. of habitations where all sources have been tested**

quality in rural areas. In addition, this document also includes requirements for setting up laboratories at state, district and sub-district levels and quality control for regular testing and surveillance of drinking water sources. The purpose of this document is to describe various elements of laboratory management practices. Following the various provisions in the protocol and with funding provided by the Government of India, 51 district laboratories, 3 block laboratories and 106 subdivisional laboratories have been established in 51 districts of the State of Madhya Pradesh. In the month of July 2014, an assessment of implementation of various provisions of the protocol with regard to (1) availability of space for analytical purpose; (2) availability of office equipment, instruments, glassware and chemicals; (3) availability of human resource; (4) sampling; (5) use of field test kits; and (6) safety measures was undertaken. The objective of the assessment was to find gaps in the above-mentioned six areas and also to suggest measures, so that each laboratory

*Habitation status based on lab testing. Madhya Pradesh state (as of 31 March 2014).*

achieves the target of minimum 3000 water quality tests per year.

ment or to common people, i.e. water users.

**3. Methodology**

It is evident from **Table 1** that in the State of Madhya Pradesh there are only 22,924 (18.03%) habitations where all sources have been tested in laboratories, whereas in the case of 16 districts, it is 11,217 (18.98%). In the statewide number of habitations where no source has been tested in the laboratory, it is 69,918 (54.98%), whereas in the case of 16 districts, it is 57.93%. The number of habitations where 75% of sources have been tested in laboratories is 32,052 (25.20%) in the state and 14,545 (24.62%) in 16 districts. It is a point of concern that in 69,918 habitations (54.98%), quality of water and potential risks are not known either to nodal depart-

The Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol prescribes various provisions with regard to availability of space for analytical purpose, availability of office equipment, instruments, glassware and chemicals, availability of human resource, sampling, use of field test kits and safety measures for water quality laboratories. Based on various provisions of the protocol, a structured questionnaire was designed. The questionnaire was used to collect data from chief/head chemists of all 56 water quality laboratories in 16 districts (Annexure I). The data collected in each category was analysed against the respective provision in the protocol. For example, absence of separate analytical space for biological testing of water samples against space as prescribed in the protocol highlights a gap. Absence of office equipment such as computer and internet connectivity highlights a gap in data entry and so on.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

**Total no. of habitations**

Madhya Pradesh

**Table 1.**

*Source: www.indiawater.gov.in.*

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*


**Table 1.**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

basic standard [2].

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target for drinking water was met in 2010, 663 million people still lack improved drinking water sources. 96% of the global urban population uses improved drinking water sources, compared with 84% of the rural population. 84% of the people who don't have access to improved water lives in rural areas, where they live principally through subsistence agriculture. Eight of 10 people without improved drinking water sources still live in rural areas. In developing countries, as much as 80% of illnesses are linked to poor water and sanitation conditions [2]. Besides the current target (achieved) was based solely on access to an improved facility, the definition of "improved" does not take into account other important parameters such as drinking water quality, adequacy of quantities available for domestic or productive uses, distance to water source, time spent to access and use facilities, reliability and maintenance of services, affordability and social barriers to access and safe disposal and treatment of wastewater. Furthermore, any recalibration of targets and/or adoption of stricter definitions of improved would result in significantly higher estimates of population receiving services below a

With 78.5 million people, India is at the top amongst countries with the largest number of people without access to safe water. Most of those people are living on around £3 a day. India is also amongst the top ten worst countries for household water access. Besides these distinctions, the country has the State of Madhya

Pradesh with the highest infant mortality rate (IMR) (57 deaths of children less than one year of age per 1000 live births) [3], which is worse than some of the African countries often cited for poor health indices. According to the World Bank, the IMR for Rwanda for the same year was 33, Ethiopia 43 and Zambia 45. Increased access to improved water sources is significantly associated with decreased under-five mortality rate, decreased odds of under-five mortality due to diarrhoea, decreased IMR and decreased odds of MMR. Access to water and sanitation independently contributes to child and maternal mortality outcomes [4]. If the world is to seriously address the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of reducing child and maternal mortality, then improved water and sanitation accesses are key strategies.

The 12th Five-Year Plan (2012–2017) [5] has placed a greater thrust on coverage of the water quality-affected habitations, in order to address water quality issues in rural areas. As per the NRDWP guidelines (water quality) [6], 20% of the annual NRDWP funds are allocated for tackling water quality problems to enable rural communities to have access to potable drinking water. The NRDWP guidelines further stipulate that 3% of NRDWP funds on a 100% central share basis are to be used for water quality monitoring and surveillance activities at the field level and for setting up and operating water quality testing laboratories at the state, district

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has specified drinking water quality standards in India to provide safe drinking water to the people. As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, IS-10500-2012 [7], water is defined as unfit for drinking purpose if it is bacteriologically contaminated (presence of indicator bacteria particularly *E. coli*, viruses, etc.) or if chemical contamination exceeds maximum permissible limits (e.g. excess fluoride [>1.5 mg/l], total dissolved solids (TDS) [>2000 mg/l], iron [>0.3 mg/l], manganese [>0.3 mg/l], arsenic [>0.05 mg/l], nitrates [>45 mg/l], etc.). The Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol of the Government of India [8, 10, 11] describes specific requirements for monitoring drinking water

**2. Policy framework governing water quality in rural India**

**94**

and sub-district levels.

*Habitation status based on lab testing. Madhya Pradesh state (as of 31 March 2014).*

quality in rural areas. In addition, this document also includes requirements for setting up laboratories at state, district and sub-district levels and quality control for regular testing and surveillance of drinking water sources. The purpose of this document is to describe various elements of laboratory management practices.

Following the various provisions in the protocol and with funding provided by the Government of India, 51 district laboratories, 3 block laboratories and 106 subdivisional laboratories have been established in 51 districts of the State of Madhya Pradesh. In the month of July 2014, an assessment of implementation of various provisions of the protocol with regard to (1) availability of space for analytical purpose; (2) availability of office equipment, instruments, glassware and chemicals; (3) availability of human resource; (4) sampling; (5) use of field test kits; and (6) safety measures was undertaken. The objective of the assessment was to find gaps in the above-mentioned six areas and also to suggest measures, so that each laboratory achieves the target of minimum 3000 water quality tests per year.

It is evident from **Table 1** that in the State of Madhya Pradesh there are only 22,924 (18.03%) habitations where all sources have been tested in laboratories, whereas in the case of 16 districts, it is 11,217 (18.98%). In the statewide number of habitations where no source has been tested in the laboratory, it is 69,918 (54.98%), whereas in the case of 16 districts, it is 57.93%. The number of habitations where 75% of sources have been tested in laboratories is 32,052 (25.20%) in the state and 14,545 (24.62%) in 16 districts. It is a point of concern that in 69,918 habitations (54.98%), quality of water and potential risks are not known either to nodal department or to common people, i.e. water users.

#### **3. Methodology**

The Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol prescribes various provisions with regard to availability of space for analytical purpose, availability of office equipment, instruments, glassware and chemicals, availability of human resource, sampling, use of field test kits and safety measures for water quality laboratories. Based on various provisions of the protocol, a structured questionnaire was designed. The questionnaire was used to collect data from chief/head chemists of all 56 water quality laboratories in 16 districts (Annexure I). The data collected in each category was analysed against the respective provision in the protocol. For example, absence of separate analytical space for biological testing of water samples against space as prescribed in the protocol highlights a gap. Absence of office equipment such as computer and internet connectivity highlights a gap in data entry and so on.

### **4. Results and discussion**

This section highlights data collected from 56 laboratories against prescribed provisions in the protocol. Column 1 depicts provision prescribed in the protocol, whereas Columns 2 and 3 show data collected from the laboratory staff on the respective provision of the protocol. The information has been analysed in five categories altogether (**Table 2**).


**97**

**4.3 Sampling**

**4.1 Availability**

*Provision vs. survey data.*

*Source: Survey data.*

**Table 2.**

Safety measures

**4.2 Human resource**

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State…*

**Categories As prescribed in the protocol Survey data (%** 

Staff awareness on precautions with hazardous chemicals

Staff awareness on precautions with hazardous equipment

Field test kits Purchase of FTKs in the last one year 26.79 73.21 9

**of labs)**

**Yes No**

85.71 14.29

82.14 17.86 12

1 2 3

Distribution of FTKs to gram panchayats 25.00 75.00 10 Checking FTKs for reliability and validity of testing 37.50 62.50 11

> Availability of fire extinguisher 10.71 89.29 Availability of first-aid kit 26.79 73.21 Fume hood in the laboratory 7.14 92.86

**Figure**

Out of 56 laboratories, 73.21% of laboratories do not conform to the space norms for analytical and related purposes as prescribed in the protocol. About 82.14% of laboratories do not have separate space for biological testing of water samples as prescribed. In 87.50% of laboratories, sufficient space is not available for storing necessary chemicals, instruments, office equipment and furniture. About 58.93% laboratories devoid of computer, and 60.71% laboratories don't have internet facil-

The minimum instruments, glassware and chemicals required for testing of 13 basic parameters are not available in 51.79, 17.86 and 42.86% of laboratories, respectively. About 89.29% of laboratories do not have sufficient resources for testing of

Though survey data show posting of a chemist/water analyst in 75.00% of laboratories, they are not the regular staff. About 78.57% of laboratories don't have a microbiologist/bacteriologist for bacteriological testing of samples and their interpretation. In 48.21% of laboratories, laboratory assistants are not posted to assist a chemist/ water analyst in analytical work. About 85.71% laboratories don't have a lab attendant. The posts of data entry operators for entering analysis data are vacant in 82.14% of laboratories. A 91% of laboratories don't have sampling assistants for collection, transportation and coding of sample. In 91.07% of laboratories, sample collectors are not paid mobility allowance for meeting basic travel expenses in sample collection.

A 48.21% of laboratories don't have written code/guidelines to be followed during collection of samples. A 66.07% of laboratories reported to have conducted retesting of positively tested samples for validation, but the lab staff failed to

ity. About 71.43% laboratories don't have the telephone and fax facilities.

parameters (other than 13 basic parameters) such as heavy metals.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*


#### **Table 2.**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

Space Space for analysis (district level 60m2

20m2

This section highlights data collected from 56 laboratories against prescribed provisions in the protocol. Column 1 depicts provision prescribed in the protocol, whereas Columns 2 and 3 show data collected from the laboratory staff on the respective provision of the protocol. The information has been analysed in five

**of labs)**

**Yes No**

12.50 87.50

12.50 87.50

25.00 75.00

16.07 83.93

52.00 48.00 6

66.07 33.93 7

26.79 73.21 1

1 2 3

including

including 20m2

Separate space for biological testing 17.86 82.14

) (district—15

) (district—100 and

No. of computers (district—1 and block—1) 41.07 58.93 2 Internet 39.29 60.71 No. of UPS (at least 1) 30.36 69.64

> Printer 37.50 62.50 Telephone facility 28.57 71.43 Fax 3.57 96.43

Glassware 82.14 17.86 Chemicals 57.14 42.86 Air conditioner 10.71 89.29

Chemist/water analyst 75.00 25.00 4

Maintaining record of test results 60.71 39.29 8

Microbiologist/bacteriologist 21.43 78.57 Laboratory assistant 51.79 48.21 Lab attendant 14.29 85.71 Data entry operator 17.86 82.14 Person engaged exclusively for sample collection 9.00 91.00 5 Mobility allowance to sample collectors 8.93 91.07

Instruments 48.21 51.79 3

) (district—25 and

**Figure**

**Categories As prescribed in the protocol Survey data (%** 

for bio and block level 50m2

Space for storage (inm2

Total space requirement (inm2

Sampling Availability of written code/guidelines for sample

collection in laboratories

Retesting of positively tested samples for analysis validity and confirmation of results

Space for office and library (inm2

for bio)

block—20)

and block—10)

block—80)

Inverters (backup time = 3 hours) (district—2 and block—1)

**4. Results and discussion**

categories altogether (**Table 2**).

Office equipment

Minimum requirement

Human resource

**96**

*Provision vs. survey data.*

#### **4.1 Availability**

Out of 56 laboratories, 73.21% of laboratories do not conform to the space norms for analytical and related purposes as prescribed in the protocol. About 82.14% of laboratories do not have separate space for biological testing of water samples as prescribed. In 87.50% of laboratories, sufficient space is not available for storing necessary chemicals, instruments, office equipment and furniture. About 58.93% laboratories devoid of computer, and 60.71% laboratories don't have internet facility. About 71.43% laboratories don't have the telephone and fax facilities.

The minimum instruments, glassware and chemicals required for testing of 13 basic parameters are not available in 51.79, 17.86 and 42.86% of laboratories, respectively. About 89.29% of laboratories do not have sufficient resources for testing of parameters (other than 13 basic parameters) such as heavy metals.

#### **4.2 Human resource**

Though survey data show posting of a chemist/water analyst in 75.00% of laboratories, they are not the regular staff. About 78.57% of laboratories don't have a microbiologist/bacteriologist for bacteriological testing of samples and their interpretation. In 48.21% of laboratories, laboratory assistants are not posted to assist a chemist/ water analyst in analytical work. About 85.71% laboratories don't have a lab attendant. The posts of data entry operators for entering analysis data are vacant in 82.14% of laboratories. A 91% of laboratories don't have sampling assistants for collection, transportation and coding of sample. In 91.07% of laboratories, sample collectors are not paid mobility allowance for meeting basic travel expenses in sample collection.

#### **4.3 Sampling**

A 48.21% of laboratories don't have written code/guidelines to be followed during collection of samples. A 66.07% of laboratories reported to have conducted retesting of positively tested samples for validation, but the lab staff failed to

produce any documentary evidence in support of their claim. In 39.29% of laboratories, though staffs maintain separate register for positively tested samples, it was not found updated in 62.50% of such cases (62.50% of 39.29%).

#### **4.4 Field test kits (FTKs)**

In the last one year (prior to survey), 73.21% laboratories did not purchase FTKs for distributions to Gram Panchayats. Though 26.79% laboratories reported to have purchased FTKs in the last year, out of that only 37.50% of laboratories distributed them to Gram Panchayats. In 71.43% of laboratories, FTKs are not tested for validity and reliability of testing.

#### **4.5 Safety measures**

The staff in 82.14 and 85.71% of laboratories were found aware on safety measures while dealing with hazardous chemicals and equipment, respectively, but requisite safety measure, viz. fire extinguishers, first-aid kits and fume hood, was not available in 89.29, 73.21 and 92.86% of laboratories, respectively).

#### **5. Discussion**

#### **5.1 Space crunch putting laboratory's staff and performance at risk**

The unavailability of exclusive space especially for biological testing makes samples vulnerable for contamination, which in turn decreases the reliability of test results. Unavailability of sufficient space for storing necessary chemicals, instruments, office equipment and furniture is creating difficulty for staff to perform and also posing threat to them (**Figure 1**).

#### **5.2 Devoid of office equipment**

Because of the unavailability of computer and internet facilities, the laboratory staff have to visit PHE division or subdivision offices, which simply wastes time and energy, and it is also responsible for delayed and poor data entry. The lack of

**99**

**Figure 2.**

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State…*

**5.3 Insufficient instruments/glassware/chemicals for testing of 13 basic** 

telephone and fax facilities results in irregular and delayed communication among different stakeholders such as sample collectors in field, community water users and

Unavailability of minimum instruments, glassware and chemicals required for testing of 13 basic parameters and heavy metals is causing laboratories to underperform. In the absence of air-conditioner or cooling facility, it is impossible to maintain optimum temperature for achieving accuracy in testing results. Because of the above gaps, none of 56 laboratories is able to achieve a minimum target of 3000

The lack of a regular chemist/water analyst in all 56 laboratories is making the undertaking of analytical work difficult. The absence of a microbiologist/bacteriologist is creating a problem in bacteriological testing of samples and their interpretation. It poses more threat in the case of drinking water sources, having damaged infrastructure like dilapidated hand pump apron, associated drainage systems and

Because of the unavailability of sampling assistants in laboratories, the work of sample collection, transportation and coding are severely affected. Not receiving payment for collecting and delivering samples even for meeting basic travel expenses is discouraging sample collectors. This ad hoc arrangement for sample collection has a negative effect on the performance of laboratories (**Figure 5**). The absence of written code/guidelines for sample collection is responsible for violation of sampling protocols, and it also raises serious questions on the accuracy of test results. Not retesting positively tested samples for validation raises doubts on the test results. Poor documentation especially of positively tested samples leaves no

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

**parameters and heavy metals**

**5.4 Dearth of qualified human resource**

leaky distribution lines (**Figure 4**).

scope for future reference.

*Availability of office equipment in laboratories.*

**5.5 Faulty sample collection and record maintenance**

higher officers (**Figure 2**).

tests per year (**Figure 3**).

**Figure 1.** *Availability of space in laboratories.*

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

telephone and fax facilities results in irregular and delayed communication among different stakeholders such as sample collectors in field, community water users and higher officers (**Figure 2**).

#### **5.3 Insufficient instruments/glassware/chemicals for testing of 13 basic parameters and heavy metals**

Unavailability of minimum instruments, glassware and chemicals required for testing of 13 basic parameters and heavy metals is causing laboratories to underperform. In the absence of air-conditioner or cooling facility, it is impossible to maintain optimum temperature for achieving accuracy in testing results. Because of the above gaps, none of 56 laboratories is able to achieve a minimum target of 3000 tests per year (**Figure 3**).

#### **5.4 Dearth of qualified human resource**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

**4.4 Field test kits (FTKs)**

and reliability of testing.

**4.5 Safety measures**

**5. Discussion**

also posing threat to them (**Figure 1**).

**5.2 Devoid of office equipment**

not found updated in 62.50% of such cases (62.50% of 39.29%).

produce any documentary evidence in support of their claim. In 39.29% of laboratories, though staffs maintain separate register for positively tested samples, it was

In the last one year (prior to survey), 73.21% laboratories did not purchase FTKs for distributions to Gram Panchayats. Though 26.79% laboratories reported to have purchased FTKs in the last year, out of that only 37.50% of laboratories distributed them to Gram Panchayats. In 71.43% of laboratories, FTKs are not tested for validity

The staff in 82.14 and 85.71% of laboratories were found aware on safety measures while dealing with hazardous chemicals and equipment, respectively, but requisite safety measure, viz. fire extinguishers, first-aid kits and fume hood, was

The unavailability of exclusive space especially for biological testing makes samples vulnerable for contamination, which in turn decreases the reliability of test results. Unavailability of sufficient space for storing necessary chemicals, instruments, office equipment and furniture is creating difficulty for staff to perform and

Because of the unavailability of computer and internet facilities, the laboratory staff have to visit PHE division or subdivision offices, which simply wastes time and energy, and it is also responsible for delayed and poor data entry. The lack of

not available in 89.29, 73.21 and 92.86% of laboratories, respectively).

**5.1 Space crunch putting laboratory's staff and performance at risk**

**98**

**Figure 1.**

*Availability of space in laboratories.*

The lack of a regular chemist/water analyst in all 56 laboratories is making the undertaking of analytical work difficult. The absence of a microbiologist/bacteriologist is creating a problem in bacteriological testing of samples and their interpretation. It poses more threat in the case of drinking water sources, having damaged infrastructure like dilapidated hand pump apron, associated drainage systems and leaky distribution lines (**Figure 4**).

#### **5.5 Faulty sample collection and record maintenance**

Because of the unavailability of sampling assistants in laboratories, the work of sample collection, transportation and coding are severely affected. Not receiving payment for collecting and delivering samples even for meeting basic travel expenses is discouraging sample collectors. This ad hoc arrangement for sample collection has a negative effect on the performance of laboratories (**Figure 5**). The absence of written code/guidelines for sample collection is responsible for violation of sampling protocols, and it also raises serious questions on the accuracy of test results. Not retesting positively tested samples for validation raises doubts on the test results. Poor documentation especially of positively tested samples leaves no scope for future reference.

**Figure 2.** *Availability of office equipment in laboratories.*

**Figure 3.** *Availability of instruments/glassware/chemicals.*

**Figure 4.** *Availability of human resource in laboratories.*

**101**

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State…*

**5.6 Nonexisting community participation in water quality monitoring through** 

FTKs serve the purpose of initial screening of contamination, but they also are an effective tool for awareness generation amongst the community to consume only safe drinking water. Since majority of laboratories did not purchase FTKs in the last 1 year (prior to survey), it raises serious question on community participation in water quality monitoring through FTKs. Not testing FTKs in laboratories for checking their validity and reliability for water quality testing results in wastage of

Though survey data indicate high level of awareness amongst the laboratory staff on the safety measures while dealing with hazardous chemicals and equipment, in majority of laboratories, the absence of safety measures such as fire extinguishers, first-aid kits and fume hood in laboratories is posing threat to the safety of the laboratory staff. It also puts psychological stress on the staff while working in

Because of the above gaps, none of the 56 laboratories in 16 districts is able to perform a minimum of 3000 water quality tests per year (annual analysis load).

**6.1 Interdepartmental coordination for space sharing or availability**

may be availed on lease from the District Land Revenue Department.

**6.2 Development of procurement system**

Since most of the district and sub-district offices of the Public Health Engineering Department are not having their own lands except for offices, land

in the protocol must be made available in laboratories. For this a procurement

Minimum chemicals, glassware, instruments and office equipment as prescribed

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

**field test kits (FTKs)**

*Awareness on and availability of safety measures in laboratories.*

**5.7 Insufficient safety measures**

laboratories (**Figure 6**).

**6. Conclusion**

resources.

**Figure 6.**

**Figure 5.** *Sample collectors and mobility allowance.*

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

**Figure 6.**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

**100**

**Figure 5.**

**Figure 4.**

**Figure 3.**

*Availability of instruments/glassware/chemicals.*

*Availability of human resource in laboratories.*

*Sample collectors and mobility allowance.*

*Awareness on and availability of safety measures in laboratories.*

#### **5.6 Nonexisting community participation in water quality monitoring through field test kits (FTKs)**

FTKs serve the purpose of initial screening of contamination, but they also are an effective tool for awareness generation amongst the community to consume only safe drinking water. Since majority of laboratories did not purchase FTKs in the last 1 year (prior to survey), it raises serious question on community participation in water quality monitoring through FTKs. Not testing FTKs in laboratories for checking their validity and reliability for water quality testing results in wastage of resources.

#### **5.7 Insufficient safety measures**

Though survey data indicate high level of awareness amongst the laboratory staff on the safety measures while dealing with hazardous chemicals and equipment, in majority of laboratories, the absence of safety measures such as fire extinguishers, first-aid kits and fume hood in laboratories is posing threat to the safety of the laboratory staff. It also puts psychological stress on the staff while working in laboratories (**Figure 6**).

Because of the above gaps, none of the 56 laboratories in 16 districts is able to perform a minimum of 3000 water quality tests per year (annual analysis load).

#### **6. Conclusion**

#### **6.1 Interdepartmental coordination for space sharing or availability**

Since most of the district and sub-district offices of the Public Health Engineering Department are not having their own lands except for offices, land may be availed on lease from the District Land Revenue Department.

#### **6.2 Development of procurement system**

Minimum chemicals, glassware, instruments and office equipment as prescribed in the protocol must be made available in laboratories. For this a procurement

system may be put in place. This system will help laboratories in periodic need assessment, product quantification and forecasting, budgeting and procurement planning. The procurement function may also be outsourced to an external specialised agency.

#### **6.3 Recruitment of qualified human resource and their capacity building**

In order to achieve efficiency in functioning of laboratories, qualified staff in sufficient number must be posted on a regular basis. If it is not possible for the entire state for the want of finances, it may be ensured at least for districts having more number of quality-affected sources. For capacity building of the laboratory staff and community water users, capacity building module based on the "Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol" of the Government of India comprising salient features may be used.

#### **6.4 Developing cadre of sample collectors and their capacity building**

Amongst community members, a group of people especially the youth may be selected for developing them as a cadre of sample collectors. Their services may be incentivised through pecuniary or non-pecuniary measures. The capacity of this cadre may also be built on the use of FTKs for preliminary investigation of water samples. Ground staff of other departments such as ASHA, Anganwadi workers, school teachers, GP members, social workers, etc. may also be involved in collection of water samples from the field.

#### **6.5 System development for random checking of positively tested samples**

A separate register may be maintained for positively tested samples. From this register, samples may be chosen on random basis and may be retested. This random checking of samples should be made a routine activity for the laboratory staff. Results of positively tested samples need to be conveyed to the staff of the Public Health Engineering Department for taking remedial actions. Water users fetching water from such sources must be informed immediately, and necessary actions should be initiated.

#### **6.6 Availability of safety measures in laboratories**

Safety measures in sufficient quantity should be made available in laboratories for the safety of the laboratory staff. Standards operating procedures (SoPs) to be followed during emergency situations may also be developed, and staff should be oriented on the same.

#### **6.7 Technological intervention for real time data and information management**

Considering the dynamic nature of water sources and prevalence of water-borne diseases, it is very difficult for nodal department/agency to monitor and maintain the water resources and schemes spread over a large geographical area. This herculean task may be made simple and effective with the involvement of local water user communities. The use of FTKs by the local community provides an excellent opportunity for this kind of participation. But it has some limitations such as availability of FTKs, replenishment cost, frequency, etc. The modern Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for information sharing may also be applied in the field.

**103**

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State…*

The National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL) is a constituent board of the Quality Council of India. NABL has been established with the objective to provide the government, industry associations and industry in general with a scheme for third-party assessment of the quality and technical competence of testing and calibration laboratories. Some of the laboratories of the state may be thought of upgrading to the NABL standards and may be

There are certain risk factors that are associated with increased mortality and morbidity. The unsafe water and lack of sanitation are included in those preventable risk factors. Unsafe water supplies and inadequate levels of sanitation and hygiene increase the transmission of diarrhoeal diseases (including cholera), trachoma and

In such state, the infrastructure which is responsible for assessing and monitoring the water quality is in dismal condition. Though the world is on track to reach the drinking water target, it is projected to miss the sanitation target if trends remained unchanged; global rate of progress will be negatively influenced espe-

In order to reduce the rates of important health indicators such as IMR and MMR, strengthening of water quality monitoring infrastructure is of utmost important. If done properly, this would have a positive impact on global goals such as the SDGs, because India has a large share in these goals to be achieved by the year 2030.

**S. no. District District laboratories Subdivision laboratories**

 Alirajpur 1 2 Barwani 1 1 Chhatarpur 1 3 Damoh 1 2 5 Dhar 1 4 Dindori 1 2 Jabalpur 1 2 Jhabua 1 1 Mandla 1 4 Panna 1 1 11 Rewa 1 4 Sagar 1 4 Satna 1 3 Sehore 1 3 Sidhi 1 2 Tikamgarh 1 2 **Total 16 40**

**6.8 Upgradation of laboratories to national or global standards**

cially by poor progress in populous countries like China and India.

List of districts and number of laboratories assessed.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

used for exposure and training purposes.

hepatitis [9].

**Annexure I**

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

#### **6.8 Upgradation of laboratories to national or global standards**

The National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL) is a constituent board of the Quality Council of India. NABL has been established with the objective to provide the government, industry associations and industry in general with a scheme for third-party assessment of the quality and technical competence of testing and calibration laboratories. Some of the laboratories of the state may be thought of upgrading to the NABL standards and may be used for exposure and training purposes.

There are certain risk factors that are associated with increased mortality and morbidity. The unsafe water and lack of sanitation are included in those preventable risk factors. Unsafe water supplies and inadequate levels of sanitation and hygiene increase the transmission of diarrhoeal diseases (including cholera), trachoma and hepatitis [9].

In such state, the infrastructure which is responsible for assessing and monitoring the water quality is in dismal condition. Though the world is on track to reach the drinking water target, it is projected to miss the sanitation target if trends remained unchanged; global rate of progress will be negatively influenced especially by poor progress in populous countries like China and India.

In order to reduce the rates of important health indicators such as IMR and MMR, strengthening of water quality monitoring infrastructure is of utmost important. If done properly, this would have a positive impact on global goals such as the SDGs, because India has a large share in these goals to be achieved by the year 2030.

#### **Annexure I**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

ised agency.

ing salient features may be used.

of water samples from the field.

**6.6 Availability of safety measures in laboratories**

should be initiated.

oriented on the same.

system may be put in place. This system will help laboratories in periodic need assessment, product quantification and forecasting, budgeting and procurement planning. The procurement function may also be outsourced to an external special-

**6.3 Recruitment of qualified human resource and their capacity building**

**6.4 Developing cadre of sample collectors and their capacity building**

**6.5 System development for random checking of positively tested samples**

A separate register may be maintained for positively tested samples. From this register, samples may be chosen on random basis and may be retested. This random checking of samples should be made a routine activity for the laboratory staff. Results of positively tested samples need to be conveyed to the staff of the Public Health Engineering Department for taking remedial actions. Water users fetching water from such sources must be informed immediately, and necessary actions

Safety measures in sufficient quantity should be made available in laboratories for the safety of the laboratory staff. Standards operating procedures (SoPs) to be followed during emergency situations may also be developed, and staff should be

**6.7 Technological intervention for real time data and information management**

Considering the dynamic nature of water sources and prevalence of water-borne diseases, it is very difficult for nodal department/agency to monitor and maintain the water resources and schemes spread over a large geographical area. This herculean task may be made simple and effective with the involvement of local water user communities. The use of FTKs by the local community provides an excellent opportunity for this kind of participation. But it has some limitations such as availability of FTKs, replenishment cost, frequency, etc. The modern Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for information sharing may also be applied in

In order to achieve efficiency in functioning of laboratories, qualified staff in sufficient number must be posted on a regular basis. If it is not possible for the entire state for the want of finances, it may be ensured at least for districts having more number of quality-affected sources. For capacity building of the laboratory staff and community water users, capacity building module based on the "Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol" of the Government of India compris-

Amongst community members, a group of people especially the youth may be selected for developing them as a cadre of sample collectors. Their services may be incentivised through pecuniary or non-pecuniary measures. The capacity of this cadre may also be built on the use of FTKs for preliminary investigation of water samples. Ground staff of other departments such as ASHA, Anganwadi workers, school teachers, GP members, social workers, etc. may also be involved in collection

**102**

the field.


List of districts and number of laboratories assessed.

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

#### **Author details**

Abhishek Parsai\* and Varsha Rokade Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India

\*Address all correspondence to: abhishek.parsai@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**105**

2014]

2014]

[Accessed: July 2014]

[9] UNICEF and World Health Organisation. Progress on Sanitation

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State…*

and Drinking Water, 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. 2015. Available from: https://www.unicef.pt/

progressos-saneamento-agua-potavel/ files/progress-on-sanitation-drinkingwater2015.pdf [Accessed: March, 2017]

PrintRelease.aspx?relid=98399—This information was given by Union Minister of Health & Family Welfare Shri Ghulam Nabi Azad in written reply to a question in the Lok Sabha today

[10] http://pib.nic.in/newsite/

[11] WaterAid. Drinking Water Quality in Rural India: Issues and Approaches. 2008. Available from: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/ indiawaterportal.org/files/Drinking%20 Water%20Quality%20in%20Rural%20 India\_Issues%20and%20Approaches\_ WaterAid\_2008.pdf [Accessed: March,

2017]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

[1] UNEP. A Snapshot of the World's Water Quality: Towards a Global Assessment. 2016. Available from: https://uneplive.unep.org/media/docs/ assessments/unep\_wwqa\_report\_web.

[2] Slaymaker T. Framing Paper for JMP post-2015 Working Group on Water Last Updated: May 2012. WaterAid, Catarina Fonseca. IRC—International Water and Sanitation Centre [Accessed: March,

[4] Cheng et al. 2013. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/

[5] GoI. Faster Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth: An Approach to the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017). New Delhi: Planning Commission, Government of India; 2011 Available from: http://www.planningcommission.

gov.in/plans/planrel/12appdrft/

[6] MDWS. NRDWP Guidelines, 2013. Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India. 2013. Available from: http://www.mdws. gov.in/sites/default/files/NRDWP\_ Guidelines\_2013.pdf [Accessed: July,

[7] BIS. Definition of Drinking Water Quality as per BIS Specifications—IS 10500:2012 (Revised) Standards for Drinking Water. 2012. [Accessed: July,

[8] MDWS Protocol. Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol of Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India. 2013.

pdf [Accessed: March, 2017]

**References**

2017]

[3] SRS. 2014

articles/PMC3293047/

appraoch\_12plan.pdf

*Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80494*

#### **References**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

**104**

**Author details**

provided the original work is properly cited.

Abhishek Parsai\* and Varsha Rokade

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India

\*Address all correspondence to: abhishek.parsai@gmail.com

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

[1] UNEP. A Snapshot of the World's Water Quality: Towards a Global Assessment. 2016. Available from: https://uneplive.unep.org/media/docs/ assessments/unep\_wwqa\_report\_web. pdf [Accessed: March, 2017]

[2] Slaymaker T. Framing Paper for JMP post-2015 Working Group on Water Last Updated: May 2012. WaterAid, Catarina Fonseca. IRC—International Water and Sanitation Centre [Accessed: March, 2017]

[3] SRS. 2014

[4] Cheng et al. 2013. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC3293047/

[5] GoI. Faster Sustainable and More Inclusive Growth: An Approach to the Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-2017). New Delhi: Planning Commission, Government of India; 2011 Available from: http://www.planningcommission. gov.in/plans/planrel/12appdrft/ appraoch\_12plan.pdf

[6] MDWS. NRDWP Guidelines, 2013. Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India. 2013. Available from: http://www.mdws. gov.in/sites/default/files/NRDWP\_ Guidelines\_2013.pdf [Accessed: July, 2014]

[7] BIS. Definition of Drinking Water Quality as per BIS Specifications—IS 10500:2012 (Revised) Standards for Drinking Water. 2012. [Accessed: July, 2014]

[8] MDWS Protocol. Uniform Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Protocol of Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Government of India. 2013. [Accessed: July 2014]

[9] UNICEF and World Health Organisation. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water, 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. 2015. Available from: https://www.unicef.pt/ progressos-saneamento-agua-potavel/ files/progress-on-sanitation-drinkingwater2015.pdf [Accessed: March, 2017]

[10] http://pib.nic.in/newsite/ PrintRelease.aspx?relid=98399—This information was given by Union Minister of Health & Family Welfare Shri Ghulam Nabi Azad in written reply to a question in the Lok Sabha today

[11] WaterAid. Drinking Water Quality in Rural India: Issues and Approaches. 2008. Available from: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/ indiawaterportal.org/files/Drinking%20 Water%20Quality%20in%20Rural%20 India\_Issues%20and%20Approaches\_ WaterAid\_2008.pdf [Accessed: March, 2017]

## *Edited by Natasha Potgieter and Afsatou Ndama Traore Hoffman*

There are 17 comprehensive and detailed Sustainable Development Goals, which are all interlinked. Although access to water, sanitation, and hygiene is a human right, billions of people in developing countries are still faced with daily challenges accessing even the most basic of services, specifically the poor and vulnerable in communities. Hygiene is an important aspect for women/girls to access the economic, educational, and social opportunities they deserve. Proper hygiene removes disease as a barrier for equality, economic growth, and more. The role of hygiene in water, sanitation, and infections must be addressed from both scientific and social perspectives. This book provides the reader with an analysis of hygiene behaviors and practices and provides evidence-based examples in a number of developing countries.

Published in London, UK © 2019 IntechOpen © polygraphus / iStock

The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries

The Relevance of

Hygiene to Health in

Developing Countries

*Edited by Natasha Potgieter* 

*and Afsatou Ndama Traore Hoffman*