Preface

It is well known that millions are affected daily by hygiene-related infections and life-threatening diseases. The main consequence of lack of hygiene is the increase in child mortality and is a result of poor service delivery and lack of intervention strategies.

The term "Hygiene" is a concept commonly associated with cleanliness. It is related to personal and professional care practices. The World Health Organization defines hygiene as conditions and practices that support health and thwart the spread of diseases. In developing countries, there are several challenges faced by communities to achieve good hygiene. These challenges include aspects such as lack of clean water, no access to soap, and poor/inadequate or non-existent sanitation facilities among others.

This book highlights some aspects of hygiene conditions in developing countries around the world. The chapters have been organized into two sections. Section 1 deals with hygiene problems impacting health in developing communities. Section 2 deals with water-handling aspects and their impact on health issues in the developing world. It is a combination of several reports compiled at this specific period of time and how hygiene affects the quality of life for the reported communities and their health.

**II**

**Chapter 7 93**

Water Quality Monitoring Infrastructure for Tackling Water-Borne Diseases in the State of Madhya Pradesh, India, and Its Implication on the Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs)

*by Abhishek Parsai and Varsha Rokade*

**Natasha Potgieter** Professor/Dean, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa

#### **Afsatou Ndama Traore Hoffman**

Associate Professor, Department of Microbiology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa

**1**

Section 1

Introduction

Section 1 Introduction

**3**

**2. Conclusion**

**Chapter 1**

on Hygiene

**1. Introduction**

Introductory Chapter: Perspectives

*Natasha Potgieter and Afsatou Ndama Traore Hoffman*

According to the 2017 WHO/UNICEFF progress report on drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene, adequate data on hygiene aspects globally are still lacking; 159 million people still collect water directly from surface sources such as rivers; and 2.3 billion people still lack a basic sanitation service. After the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDG), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) or Global Goals were formulated as the way forward. In total, there are 17 SDGs with a total of 169 targets and they all formed the core of the SDGs to put an end to poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The main challenges to the SDGs are aspects such as poverty, exclusion, unemployment, climate change, conflict, lack of humanitarian aid, building peaceful and inclusive societies, building strong institutions of governance, and supporting the rule of law [1]. The availability of water and sanitation and the sustainable management of water and sanitation aspects are essential to hygiene. To have access to safe and affordable drinking water is a basic human right and while many people take clean drinking water and sanitation for granted, many others do not have this luxury due to circumstances out of their control. It is believed that water scarcity affects more than 40% of people around the world. With increasing climate change issues, this number is projected to go even higher and it is predicted that by the year 2050, at least one in four people is likely to be affected by recurring water shortages. Water access, quality, quantity, and water point management are largely influenced by seasonality where different factors impact on the outcome. People tend to use different water sources depending on the season. In addition, seasonality also impacts on the quality and quantity of water available for use. During dry seasons people not only tend to collect and use less water but also tend to use alternative sources. People switch between safe and unsafe sources and between improved and unimproved sources based on the availability of water at specific sources [2]. Human dignity is affected by the lack of sanitation services. Globally, billions of people do not have access to even the basic sanitation services and are exposed to harmful pathogens in their drinking water and their food. Inadequate or poor sanitation is a major cause of infectious diseases and it contributes to stunting, impaired cognitive functions, and anxiety. Poor sanitation also affects the well-being through school attendance,

especially of woman and girls during their menstrual periods [3].

Hygiene is usually seen by people as a condition of cleanliness; however, it is broader than this. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines hygiene as conditions and/or practices that help to maintain good standard of health and prevent

#### **Chapter 1**

## Introductory Chapter: Perspectives on Hygiene

*Natasha Potgieter and Afsatou Ndama Traore Hoffman*

#### **1. Introduction**

According to the 2017 WHO/UNICEFF progress report on drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene, adequate data on hygiene aspects globally are still lacking; 159 million people still collect water directly from surface sources such as rivers; and 2.3 billion people still lack a basic sanitation service. After the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDG), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) or Global Goals were formulated as the way forward. In total, there are 17 SDGs with a total of 169 targets and they all formed the core of the SDGs to put an end to poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The main challenges to the SDGs are aspects such as poverty, exclusion, unemployment, climate change, conflict, lack of humanitarian aid, building peaceful and inclusive societies, building strong institutions of governance, and supporting the rule of law [1].

The availability of water and sanitation and the sustainable management of water and sanitation aspects are essential to hygiene. To have access to safe and affordable drinking water is a basic human right and while many people take clean drinking water and sanitation for granted, many others do not have this luxury due to circumstances out of their control. It is believed that water scarcity affects more than 40% of people around the world. With increasing climate change issues, this number is projected to go even higher and it is predicted that by the year 2050, at least one in four people is likely to be affected by recurring water shortages. Water access, quality, quantity, and water point management are largely influenced by seasonality where different factors impact on the outcome. People tend to use different water sources depending on the season. In addition, seasonality also impacts on the quality and quantity of water available for use. During dry seasons people not only tend to collect and use less water but also tend to use alternative sources. People switch between safe and unsafe sources and between improved and unimproved sources based on the availability of water at specific sources [2]. Human dignity is affected by the lack of sanitation services. Globally, billions of people do not have access to even the basic sanitation services and are exposed to harmful pathogens in their drinking water and their food. Inadequate or poor sanitation is a major cause of infectious diseases and it contributes to stunting, impaired cognitive functions, and anxiety. Poor sanitation also affects the well-being through school attendance, especially of woman and girls during their menstrual periods [3].

#### **2. Conclusion**

Hygiene is usually seen by people as a condition of cleanliness; however, it is broader than this. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines hygiene as conditions and/or practices that help to maintain good standard of health and prevent

#### *The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

the spread of diseases. Good hygiene is an important barrier to many infectious diseases, and it promotes better health and well-being. Improved hygiene conditions will benefit vulnerable members of the communities, the elderly, children under the age of 5 years, and people suffering from immunocompromised diseases like TB and HIV/AIDS [3–5]. Globally, the most affected lives are those people living in communities with poor water and sanitation infrastructure and conditions. Therefore, tracking inequalities in access to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene are important for achieving universal access and assuring progressive awareness of the human rights to water and sanitation. In order to achieve the best health benefits, improvements in hygiene should be made concurrently with improvements in the water supply and sanitation, and be integrated with other interventions, such as improving nutrition and increasing incomes.

#### **Author details**

Natasha Potgieter1 \* and Afsatou Ndama Traore Hoffman2

1 School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa

2 Department of Microbiology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: natasha.potgieter@univen.ac.za

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**5**

*Introductory Chapter: Perspectives on Hygiene DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84883*

[1] Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. United Nations General Assembly Resolution, A/RES/70/1. October 21, 2015

[2] Kelly E, Shields KF, Cronk R, Lee K, Behnke N, Klug T, et al. Seasonality, water use and community management of water systems in rural settings: Qualitative evidence from Ghana, Kenya and Zambia. The Science of the Total Environment. 2018;**628-629**:715-721. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.045

[3] WHO/UNICEFF. Progress Report on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.

2017. Available from: www.WHO/ UNICEFF [Accessed: November 2018]

[4] Potgieter N, Mpofu TB, Barnard TG. The impact water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructures have on people living with HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe. In: Zajac V, editor. AIDS. Volume 3, Chapter 8. Croatia: Intech Open Access Publicity; 2011. ISBN: 978-953-30884-2

[5] Ntema VM, Potgieter N, van Blerk GN, Barnard TG. Investigating the occurrence and survival of Vibrio cholerae in selected surface water sources in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. WRC Report K5/2168. Water Research Commission; 2014.

ISBN: 978-1-4312-0558-5

**References**

*Introductory Chapter: Perspectives on Hygiene DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.84883*

#### **References**

*The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries*

improving nutrition and increasing incomes.

the spread of diseases. Good hygiene is an important barrier to many infectious diseases, and it promotes better health and well-being. Improved hygiene conditions will benefit vulnerable members of the communities, the elderly, children under the age of 5 years, and people suffering from immunocompromised diseases like TB and HIV/AIDS [3–5]. Globally, the most affected lives are those people living in communities with poor water and sanitation infrastructure and conditions. Therefore, tracking inequalities in access to drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene are important for achieving universal access and assuring progressive awareness of the human rights to water and sanitation. In order to achieve the best health benefits, improvements in hygiene should be made concurrently with improvements in the water supply and sanitation, and be integrated with other interventions, such as

**4**

**Author details**

Natasha Potgieter1

provided the original work is properly cited.

Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Limpopo Province, South Africa

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\* and Afsatou Ndama Traore Hoffman2

1 School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Venda,

2 Department of Microbiology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou,

\*Address all correspondence to: natasha.potgieter@univen.ac.za

[1] Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. United Nations General Assembly Resolution, A/RES/70/1. October 21, 2015

[2] Kelly E, Shields KF, Cronk R, Lee K, Behnke N, Klug T, et al. Seasonality, water use and community management of water systems in rural settings: Qualitative evidence from Ghana, Kenya and Zambia. The Science of the Total Environment. 2018;**628-629**:715-721. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.045

[3] WHO/UNICEFF. Progress Report on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene. 2017. Available from: www.WHO/ UNICEFF [Accessed: November 2018]

[4] Potgieter N, Mpofu TB, Barnard TG. The impact water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructures have on people living with HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe. In: Zajac V, editor. AIDS. Volume 3, Chapter 8. Croatia: Intech Open Access Publicity; 2011. ISBN: 978-953-30884-2

[5] Ntema VM, Potgieter N, van Blerk GN, Barnard TG. Investigating the occurrence and survival of Vibrio cholerae in selected surface water sources in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. WRC Report K5/2168. Water Research Commission; 2014. ISBN: 978-1-4312-0558-5

Section 2

Hygiene Problems

Impacting Health in

Developing Communities

7

## Section 2
