**5. Adoption versus reconstruction**

Unlike the two previous curriculum ideologies, instead of focusing on individual learning, the ideologies of social efficiency and social reconstruction perceive learning as a social process. However, although the social efficiency ideology states that the initial aim of learning is to meet the acute needs of the society, the social reconstruction ideology makes use of the social process to develop students' abilities to analyze and understand society, creating solutions and a vision for a better society. The next reflective episodes exemplify the pre-service teachers' reflections on the challenges toward schooling to respond to the multiple demands of a society. The first talk brings up the social efficiency ideology, and the next one refers to social reconstruction ideology:

objectives and thus fulfill the needs of society (cf. [20]). The social reconstruction ideology, in turn, has such an impact on teachers that they are expected to provide students with learning experiences that can develop their critical analytical skills and stimulate them so that they can contribute to the reconstruction of society [20, 38]. Therefore, the necessary knowledge does not exist in books, but rather, it lies within the knowers in the meaning that the person gives

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According to the social efficiency ideology, teachers are placed in the center to control everything in the classroom, and the students are perceived as "raw materials" to be shaped. This may lead to teacher-led instruction methods because of assuming that the teacher's job is to decide what students are expected to learn, why they are learning it, how they are supposed to learn it, and what books they will be reading. This seems to be an overwhelming claim for a teacher in heterogeneous groups of inclusive settings. In turn, because, for social reconstruction ideologists, teaching is more collaborative, the development of an inclusive pedagogy is more possible. This is because social reconstruction ideologists appreciate group discussions for joint learning and developing solutions for existing problems [20]. The following episodes reflect two contrasting ways pre-service teachers reflected on experiences of inclusive classrooms. The first episode echoes the social efficiency ideology and the latter one the social reconstruction ideology:

*Our current school system has worked well as we have been recognized as the PISA success country etc. In the future, we want to continue to be among the leading countries in education. In order to be able to continue in the top of the world, and to be highly valued in the field of education, we will need new innovations in our schools. School practices should constantly keep on evaluating, in order to be able to meet the needs of society. Many experts and politicians, including the Ministry of Education, have emphasized the importance of adding information and communication technology as a medicine to our bad Pisa success.* (PRE 38). *The class talked about the refugees in Finland. Some of the students suggested that we have understand that each of their lives was unique. They knew that some had come to Finland as babies, others as children, and others encountered cruelty at home, others were struggling with bad feelings. Each of them was different, but together. I was different with them, and in that one room, in those hours, I understood about inclusive education more than ever before in my life. Inclusion is not limited to one category of people or age group, it is a conceptual model for the whole school and for better society. All children are able to learn, and the greatest benefit comes from collaboration, learning together. Diversity is valuable, and the sense of communality is emphasized in the fact that student diversity is seen as a positive resource* 

*for that school, but also for society, and everyone can get involved.* (PRE17).

is conveyed in the pre-service teachers' narrative journals.

The episodes refer to the current situation in Finland, indicating the tension between the social efficiency ideology and social reconstruction ideology. The discrepancy has occurred, for example, because of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) achievement program (e.g., [39–41]). The success has created tension in schools—concurrently with the inclusive reform—to reproduce the result by raising the effectiveness of schooling by extending both the requirements of knowledge content and demands for academic achievement in the NCC [9]. Social efficiency drivers have laid pressure on moving toward standardization and test-based accountability along with the inclusive agenda. This twofold pressure

to the words and experiences.

*I recognize the growing demands everywhere. I should increase media literacy and use ICT devices to meet today's challenges, I should support the students to identify their feelings and support them to work on them, and so on. I am expected to bring the PISA success back to the top, etc. That sounds pretty unreasonable. Not to mention inclusive teaching. I look forward to the new core curriculum to bring improvement to this situation. However, it should not be forgotten that the school is not the only place, where to turn over a new leaf of children's lives.* (PRAC 12).

*The most unforgettable teaching experience was the idea that came to my mind suddenly in the history lesson. I turned off the classrooms lights and lighted some candles. I asked the students to put our souls into some refugee's soul who had been traveling in a sinking boat in the Mediterranean Sea. We had to try to think what the person felt when the boat was sinking. It was a very quiet moment. Then I asked the students what they had been thinking. One of the students, for example, told that she had been thinking a child who had been saved. This child had been crawling on the broadside of the boat and she had seen through the window another person who was inside the boat looking through window and praying. Altogether that particular moment in our classroom was beautiful and rich in atmosphere. I think that this kind of moments and situations felt like the most important matters in the school. Schools mission is not to fulfill child with information as efficiently as possible, but recognize the injustice of the world and find ways to make the world a better place to live.* (PRAC 51).

The above episode depicts the social efficiency belief, according to which the meaning of skills and knowledge is to create a solid base of the abilities needed to function in society. Thus, the first milestone is to determine the needs of society, as one of the pre-service teachers tried earlier. The next step is to develop a curriculum that meets the determined needs. In contrast, the latter episode reflects the idea of the social reconstruction ideology that assumes that there is no such thing as an absolute knowledge or skill needed to survive in society. Many pre-service teachers parsed learning, like in the learner-centered ideology, as a process. The episode shows how they attempted to incorporate learning experience with current social issues, as in the above episode illustrating how to be sympathetic and understand the refugees' feelings under their dangerous conditions.

In terms of inclusive education, the social efficacy ideology is quite demanding for teachers. Teachers are expected to find the most efficient teaching methods for delivering the knowledge and skills to the students with the aim of producing "educated people" who achieve the objectives and thus fulfill the needs of society (cf. [20]). The social reconstruction ideology, in turn, has such an impact on teachers that they are expected to provide students with learning experiences that can develop their critical analytical skills and stimulate them so that they can contribute to the reconstruction of society [20, 38]. Therefore, the necessary knowledge does not exist in books, but rather, it lies within the knowers in the meaning that the person gives to the words and experiences.

**5. Adoption versus reconstruction**

44 Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development

social reconstruction ideology:

*children's lives.* (PRAC 12).

under their dangerous conditions.

Unlike the two previous curriculum ideologies, instead of focusing on individual learning, the ideologies of social efficiency and social reconstruction perceive learning as a social process. However, although the social efficiency ideology states that the initial aim of learning is to meet the acute needs of the society, the social reconstruction ideology makes use of the social process to develop students' abilities to analyze and understand society, creating solutions and a vision for a better society. The next reflective episodes exemplify the pre-service teachers' reflections on the challenges toward schooling to respond to the multiple demands of a society. The first talk brings up the social efficiency ideology, and the next one refers to

*I recognize the growing demands everywhere. I should increase media literacy and use ICT devices to meet today's challenges, I should support the students to identify their feelings and support them to work on them, and so on. I am expected to bring the PISA success back to the top, etc. That sounds pretty unreasonable. Not to mention inclusive teaching. I look forward to the new core curriculum to bring improvement to this situation. However, it should not be forgotten that the school is not the only place, where to turn over a new leaf of* 

*The most unforgettable teaching experience was the idea that came to my mind suddenly in the history lesson. I turned off the classrooms lights and lighted some candles. I asked the students to put our souls into some refugee's soul who had been traveling in a sinking boat in the Mediterranean Sea. We had to try to think what the person felt when the boat was sinking. It was a very quiet moment. Then I asked the students what they had been thinking. One of the students, for example, told that she had been thinking a child who had been saved. This child had been crawling on the broadside of the boat and she had seen through the window another person who was inside the boat looking through window and praying. Altogether that particular moment in our classroom was beautiful and rich in atmosphere. I think that this kind of moments and situations felt like the most important matters in the school. Schools mission is not to fulfill child with information as efficiently as possible, but recognize the injustice of* 

The above episode depicts the social efficiency belief, according to which the meaning of skills and knowledge is to create a solid base of the abilities needed to function in society. Thus, the first milestone is to determine the needs of society, as one of the pre-service teachers tried earlier. The next step is to develop a curriculum that meets the determined needs. In contrast, the latter episode reflects the idea of the social reconstruction ideology that assumes that there is no such thing as an absolute knowledge or skill needed to survive in society. Many pre-service teachers parsed learning, like in the learner-centered ideology, as a process. The episode shows how they attempted to incorporate learning experience with current social issues, as in the above episode illustrating how to be sympathetic and understand the refugees' feelings

In terms of inclusive education, the social efficacy ideology is quite demanding for teachers. Teachers are expected to find the most efficient teaching methods for delivering the knowledge and skills to the students with the aim of producing "educated people" who achieve the

*the world and find ways to make the world a better place to live.* (PRAC 51).

According to the social efficiency ideology, teachers are placed in the center to control everything in the classroom, and the students are perceived as "raw materials" to be shaped. This may lead to teacher-led instruction methods because of assuming that the teacher's job is to decide what students are expected to learn, why they are learning it, how they are supposed to learn it, and what books they will be reading. This seems to be an overwhelming claim for a teacher in heterogeneous groups of inclusive settings. In turn, because, for social reconstruction ideologists, teaching is more collaborative, the development of an inclusive pedagogy is more possible. This is because social reconstruction ideologists appreciate group discussions for joint learning and developing solutions for existing problems [20]. The following episodes reflect two contrasting ways pre-service teachers reflected on experiences of inclusive classrooms. The first episode echoes the social efficiency ideology and the latter one the social reconstruction ideology:

*Our current school system has worked well as we have been recognized as the PISA success country etc. In the future, we want to continue to be among the leading countries in education. In order to be able to continue in the top of the world, and to be highly valued in the field of education, we will need new innovations in our schools. School practices should constantly keep on evaluating, in order to be able to meet the needs of society. Many experts and politicians, including the Ministry of Education, have emphasized the importance of adding information and communication technology as a medicine to our bad Pisa success.* (PRE 38).

*The class talked about the refugees in Finland. Some of the students suggested that we have understand that each of their lives was unique. They knew that some had come to Finland as babies, others as children, and others encountered cruelty at home, others were struggling with bad feelings. Each of them was different, but together. I was different with them, and in that one room, in those hours, I understood about inclusive education more than ever before in my life. Inclusion is not limited to one category of people or age group, it is a conceptual model for the whole school and for better society. All children are able to learn, and the greatest benefit comes from collaboration, learning together. Diversity is valuable, and the sense of communality is emphasized in the fact that student diversity is seen as a positive resource for that school, but also for society, and everyone can get involved.* (PRE17).

The episodes refer to the current situation in Finland, indicating the tension between the social efficiency ideology and social reconstruction ideology. The discrepancy has occurred, for example, because of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) achievement program (e.g., [39–41]). The success has created tension in schools—concurrently with the inclusive reform—to reproduce the result by raising the effectiveness of schooling by extending both the requirements of knowledge content and demands for academic achievement in the NCC [9]. Social efficiency drivers have laid pressure on moving toward standardization and test-based accountability along with the inclusive agenda. This twofold pressure is conveyed in the pre-service teachers' narrative journals.

The latter episode mentioned earlier refers again to the debate concerning the integration of refugees in Europe. In addition, the episode depicts the inclusive shift through one of the pre-service teacher's reflections, referring to the social reconstruction curriculum ideology. In all, the pre-service teachers seemed to observe sensitively, in particular, in the collaborative environments in school communities, and they desired tangible collaboration and team teaching. Furthermore, they appreciated the idea that they could learn from their own and others' experiences through active reflection on their actions and their consequences (cf. [42]). They valued the partnership model [43] to boost their professional learning through close and supportive relationships with colleagues, which was also a prerequisite for their favorable belief of the inclusive shift in schools.

However, there is a risk that if the social efficiency ideologists shift their terminal objectives to raising academic standards, they also may shift their ideology from social to academic, despite escaping from the scholarly academic emphasis on more learner-centered education. This is critical, for example, in Finland, where the education system seems to be at a turning point regarding what path it may take. As of yet, fortunately, Finland has not chosen a highstakes testing policy as most countries have but is looking for a new way [48–50]. To keep in line with the social justice philosophy and the "Education for All" agenda, it is important to give up straightforwardly confronting the beliefs beyond the different curriculum ideologies. Instead, the school-based curriculum ideology could offer a bottom-up approach that considers students, parents, and stakeholders, as well as incorporates the best parts of the ideologies

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As Dewey [51] criticized how the academic knowledge of education has developed standards that promote "docility, receptivity and obedience" (p. 18) among students, while teachers are turned to be agents who transmit knowledge and skills and enforce rules of conduct. This is, according to Dewey, one of imposition from above and outside, creating a gulf between school and students (cf. [52]). In turn, the teachers' essential task should be to bridge the gap between students' prior knowledge and experiences and appropriate content knowledge, gaining students' individual experiences of their surrounding environment and using this to

Consequently, in conjunction with Bandura's [53] views, the data of the current study indicated that social reconstructive ideology could contribute to creating sustainable "collective efficacy" in developing inclusive school cultures. This means that by focusing on "collective efficacy" while teaching practicum in an inclusive setting, the pre-service teachers need to draw attention to educational inequalities and search for solutions that promote a just

[1] Kiuppis F. Why (not) associate the principle of inclusion with disability? Tracing connections from the start of the 'Salamanca process'. International Journal of Inclusive

[2] UNESCO. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs

[3] UNESCO. Policy Guidelines on Inclusion in Education. Paris: UNESCO; 2009a

to enhance student-driven social justice curriculum.

understand, analyzes, and improve the society around them.

Address all correspondence to: marita.makinen@uta.fi Faculty of Education, University of Tampere, Finland

Education. 2014;**18**(7):746-761

Education. Paris: UNESCO; 1994

education for all.

**Author details**

Marita Mäkinen

**References**
