**3.4. Knowledge of ends, purposes, and values of education**

once again as a simplified example, vertical curricular knowledge includes comprehension of how certain historical phenomena intertwine and ultimately create a new phase in history, such as industrialization together with globalization, which serves as a pathway to modernity. If lateral and vertical curriculum knowledge are applied together to integrate the curriculum, the process can advance step by step, beginning with studies of force in physics, metalwork in crafts, continuing with historical and economic significance of the steam engine followed by geographical understanding of urbanization and the development of logistics leading to globalization, then drawing the conclusion historically—the birth of the modern world.

The third kind of pedagogical knowledge essential for CI is teachers' ability to make content comprehensible to students. However, mere comprehension is not enough; according to Shulman, true learning is also linked to judgment and action [3]. This is what is called *pedagogical content knowledge*. It includes examples, metaphors, analogies, illustrations, activities, assignments, and demonstrations that make the content more accessible. This kind of knowledge also means understanding what makes learning of certain kinds of content difficult and what the common misconceptions are. Such pedagogical methods are always content-specific

Shulman argues that pedagogical content knowledge is the area that separates a teacher from an expert in a given scientific discipline [3]. An expert might have a great deal of content knowledge, but a teacher knows how to present the information in a suitable way for school learning. However, as noted above, the substance of the content knowledge of an expert and that of a teacher are probably different, because scientific disciplines and school subjects are

The relation between content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge is not one-way. In addition to content knowledge that is refined into pedagogical content knowledge, the content of school subjects can be constructed on pedagogical bases. Content may be designed for certain age groups, as happens in the Finnish school system: the integrated subject taught as environmental studies in primary school is differentiated into natural sciences in secondary school. This is an example of how CI serves as a form of pedagogical content knowledge. A school subject is designed as an integrated whole with the aim of making the content more

Often CI means studying contents of several subjects in connection. This means that the understanding of pedagogical content knowledge cannot be bound only to subjects, but also involves building bridges between subjects. At that point, it becomes *integrative pedagogical content knowledge*. A teacher has to have in mind demonstrations or activities that show how different subjects are interrelated or even build on knowledge from other disciplines, as in the above-mentioned example of the birth of modernity. Another possibility is to use the methods of co-teaching, collaborating with other teachers, who combine the special pedagogical content knowledge of their respective subjects. Then communication and shared understanding between teachers becomes crucial. However, the challenge for integrative co-teaching is that, in Finnish schools, it has been seen mostly as an instrument for inclusive education rather than being considered primarily in the context of CI. Research shows that co-teaching is rarely

**3.3. Pedagogical content knowledge**

126 Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development

not constructed identically.

comprehensible to young students.

so they cannot necessarily be transferred to other contexts [2].

Shulman claims that normative and theoretical knowledge of ends, purposes, and values of education is perhaps the most important part of teachers' scholarly knowledge. This includes images of what is possible, of how a well-functioning school might look, what the students should become, and what can be understood as comprising a good education [3]. The Finnish core curriculum stresses the holistic growth of students as ethical persons. For teachers to cultivate moral and social awareness in students, the prerequisite is that teachers have a good understanding of educational values and purposes. In addition to general educational values, subject-specific values can be recognized [30]. Accordingly, CI can be seen as having its own, although varying value base.

The need for an integrated curriculum frequently emerges from ethical or social issues. It can even be directly aimed toward solving problems of the society or the local community. For example, CI is now popular in Finnish schools as a means of teaching what climate change means and what can be done to stall, if not reverse it. In addition, CI can serve as a form of democratic education [31, 32]. Altogether, it can be said that the strength of CI is that it can have a strong purpose, a pedagogical mission. Therefore, CI can be seen as an idealistic form for a curriculum [10]. However, for CI to be successful, the purpose has to be fully comprehended by teachers, a situation that might not always be the case in Finland, where CI has not had a stable role in teacher education [33].
