**1.2. Instruction of metacognition as part of programs designed to teach higher-order thinking**

There is ample evidence showing that metacognition has a crucial role in learning and instruction of HOT. In order to explain the intersection of these two concepts, a brief overview of the concept of metacognition is called for. Flavell and his colleagues [10] distinguish between two major components of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge (MK) and metacognitive monitoring and self-regulation. Many researchers also refer to the latter component as metacognitive skills (MS).

*Metacognitive knowledge (MK)* refers to knowledge, beliefs, ideas, and theories about people as "cognitive creatures" and about their diverse interactions with cognitive tasks and strategies [11]. MK includes three subcategories: knowledge about persons, tasks, and strategies. In the context of teaching HOT, knowledge of tasks and strategies is particularly significant. Kuhn views strategy and task knowledge as interrelated subcomponents of *metastrategic knowledge (MS)* [12]. Metastrategic knowledge, as defined by Kuhn, entails knowledge about what thinking strategies can accomplish, about when, why, and how to use these strategies, and about the goals and requirements of tasks [12, 13]. *Metacognitive skills (MS)* are the skills and processes used to guide, monitor, control, and regulate cognition and learning. For example, Schraw and Moshman [14] point out three essential skill categories: planning, monitoring, and evaluation.

Many methods for teaching HOT embrace metacognition as a crucial component of instruction (for a review see [15]). In order to understand the importance of metacognition in teaching HOT, let us consider a successful execution of a HOT strategy in science education, for example, variable control. When designing an experiment, students need to know that the task *requires* variable control, to understand *why* variable control should be used (e.g., that without it inferences will be invalid), and to know *how* to control variables (e.g., to change only one variable at a time while keeping the other variables constant). These are components of metacognitive knowledge regarding the when, why, and how of performing the strategy. Alternatively, using the terminology presented earlier, we can say that these components consist of MSK about variable control. However, in order to actually control variables during their experimentation, students also need to plan their actions in a careful way, to monitor their actions in order to see if things are going according to plan, and to evaluate whether they have indeed controlled variables correctly and if their inferences are valid. This evaluation may lead the students to conclude that they need to design a new and better experiment. That is, successful execution of a HOT strategy also requires MS such as planning, monitoring, evaluating, and regulating.

**1.1. Teaching higher-order thinking**

88 Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development

works of the various school subjects [6, 7].

is essential for such implementation efforts.

**thinking**

cognitive skills (MS).

monitoring, and evaluation.

Many studies document the significance of metacognition for students' learning and achievements (e.g., see [1, 2].) The present study explores metacognitive instruction in the area of teaching higher order thinking (HOT). In general terms, HOT refers to cognitive activities that are beyond the stage of recall and comprehension/understanding, according to Bloom's taxonomy [3] and according to more recent revised models [4, 5]. Applying analyzing, evaluating, and creating are key elements at the HOT level. Examples of cognitive activities that are classified as HOT also include constructing and evaluating arguments, asking research questions, dealing with controversies, making comparisons, designing, controlling variables, drawing conclusions, corroborating information sources, and establishing causal relationships [6]. The underlying assumption of this chapter is that HOT must be taught according to the infusion approach, that is, to be integrated with the content and rich conceptual frame-

Despite numerous projects aimed at fostering HOT, most classrooms worldwide are still predominately characterized by pedagogy of knowledge transmission that focuses on lowerorder cognitive levels. Several researchers note that scaling up the "thinking curriculum" is a huge challenge that is still awaiting educational systems all over the world [8, 9]. These studies show that we still need to explore new ways to implement HOT in schools. Metacognition

**1.2. Instruction of metacognition as part of programs designed to teach higher-order** 

There is ample evidence showing that metacognition has a crucial role in learning and instruction of HOT. In order to explain the intersection of these two concepts, a brief overview of the concept of metacognition is called for. Flavell and his colleagues [10] distinguish between two major components of metacognition: metacognitive knowledge (MK) and metacognitive monitoring and self-regulation. Many researchers also refer to the latter component as meta-

*Metacognitive knowledge (MK)* refers to knowledge, beliefs, ideas, and theories about people as "cognitive creatures" and about their diverse interactions with cognitive tasks and strategies [11]. MK includes three subcategories: knowledge about persons, tasks, and strategies. In the context of teaching HOT, knowledge of tasks and strategies is particularly significant. Kuhn views strategy and task knowledge as interrelated subcomponents of *metastrategic knowledge (MS)* [12]. Metastrategic knowledge, as defined by Kuhn, entails knowledge about what thinking strategies can accomplish, about when, why, and how to use these strategies, and about the goals and requirements of tasks [12, 13]. *Metacognitive skills (MS)* are the skills and processes used to guide, monitor, control, and regulate cognition and learning. For example, Schraw and Moshman [14] point out three essential skill categories: planning,

Many methods for teaching HOT embrace metacognition as a crucial component of instruction (for a review see [15]). In order to understand the importance of metacognition Both theoretical and empirical studies support the significance of metacognition for instruction of HOT [15]. The claim that increasing students' MSK enhances strategic thinking implies that it may be fruitful to try teach that knowledge rather than wait until it develops spontaneously. Addressing MSK in the classroom often amounts to helping students see the general thinking structures embedded in the "messy" domain-specific situations they are dealing with. For instance, students may not see any connection between an inquiry activity they are doing in class in the subject of seed germination and an inquiry activity they did a month earlier in the topic of force and motion. The teacher, however, can explicitly point out that both activities share the same features of the inquiry cycle and that the rule they had learned regarding the need to control variables applies in both cases. Using explicit general knowledge pertaining to MSK in teaching thinking is therefore a type of "bridging" activity that may enhance transfer [16].

Metacognitive skills (MS) also make substantial contributions to students' thinking. In order to control and regulate their thinking, learners employ MS that draw on their MK regarding cognitive processes [14]. For example, learners need to plan, in the sense that they need to choose which HOT strategy to use among several available strategies, based on task demands. Then they need to monitor and regulate the use of that strategy.
