**4. Architectural design teams**

subordinates for mistakes they did not make. Keashly [36] added the use of derogatory names and intimidation. Schilling [37] considers insincere, despotic, exploitative, restrictive, failed, avoiding active or passive and laissez-faire leadership among the eight dimensions of nega-

Conger [38] defined dark side of leadership that such events taking place whenever a leader's behavior exaggerated, become vehicles for purely personal gain, or lose touch with reality, then the possibility of the behavior harming the leader and the organization increases. According to Hackman and Johnson [39], the leadership that does not have the ethical components of moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation and moral action is called unethical leadership. [40] Abusive leadership is on the dark side of leadership that abusive supervision empirically linked to impaired well-being burnout, feelings of helplessness, diminished levels of self-efficacy, self-esteem, affective commitment to the organization and

Blair et al. [43] investigated if highly narcissistic individuals frequently engage in behaviors that are associated with unethical leadership, or not. Unethical leaders operate frequently with an egoistic intent, utilize controlling as opposed to empowering strategies to influence followers, fail to abstain from vices [44] and acting in manipulation and exploitation [45]. Yukl [46] defined unethical leadership behaviors including falsifying information, provoking distrust among others, blaming followers for their own mistakes and showing favoritism in exchange for self-serving actions. Conger [38] defined unethical leadership behaviors, such as making exaggerated claims for the vision, and narcissistic leadership behaviors, such as using anecdotes to distract from statistical information and making exaggerated claims regarding information. According to Hovel and Avolio [47], unethical leaders use power for personal gain, promote their own personal vision, censure opposing views, demand their own decisions accepted without question, engage in one way communication, show insensitivity to follower has needs and rely on convenient external moral standards to satisfy self-interests [43]. Negative attributes or impediments for effective leadership, sometimes it is called negative leadership, toxic leadership, abusive leadership or destructive leadership, and can affect followers, organizations, external stakeholders and even leaders themselves [28]. Several negative personal traits lead to ineffectiveness of leadership. Both anti-subordinate behaviors such as intimidating and bullying subordinates, and anti-organizational behaviors such as laziness, lack of appropriate management skills, failing to build teams, being unable to think strategically and spending more time occupied with matters other than their work assignments are among the personal behaviors of leaders that lead to ineffectiveness [48]. On the other hand, according to Lombardo et al. [49], inability to build a cohesive team, over- and under-managing, being overly ambitious, not supportive and demanding of subordinates, being overly emotional, being sensitive, cold and arrogant, and maintaining poor relations with staff and overriding personality defects are the characteristics contributing to the incompetence of managers. According to Schaubroeck et al. [50], personal insensitivity of leaders and excessive demands seen to interfere with performance of subordinate and create strain. Charisma, personalized use of power, narcissism, negative life themes and an ideology of

hate are among the personal attributes conceptualized by Padilla et al. [28, 51].

tive leadership behaviors.

increased employee strain [33, 41, 42].

74 Dark Sides of Organizational Behavior and Leadership

According to Schön [55], the designers, the design task and the design process are described as an integrated cognitive activity. Teamwork in design process is fundamental with an emphasis on identifying supportive organizational forms or successful interactive arrangements. The design group executes specific design activities, structure design communication, assign and solve problems, as well as document activities [4, 56–58]. In the view of Ogot and Okudan [59], design teams characterized by a high degree of interdependence to achieve common goals, and rely heavily on the dynamic exchange of information and resources among members. Architectural design is a knowledge-intensive activity, and in the design process, architects work as a team. Architectural design relies on effective interaction between project actors and stakeholders, and it is a collaborative act. Team building, resolution of minor differences and conflicts, subsequent sharing of values and discussion, question asking and the creation of trust between team members are just a few of the factors that are crucial to the smooth running of projects and which are reliant on the ability of the actors to communicate effectively and efficiently. Design teams are for architectural projects defined as multidisciplinary, temporary and network-based organizations. One of the design team members, usually the architect or a project manager delegated by the client, manage these grouping of specialist designers [60]. A specialist designer can be the representative of a collaborating design organization, an individual or an independent designer. According to Schön [61] and Lawson [62], they are usually designers with a management task or managers with an additional designing task and are characterized as visionary, specialty aware, creative and abstract thinking practitioners with a high level of technical knowledge and experience [63].

Architects have a complex role, rather than being the leader of design team, that they are responsible for building space use, appearance, relationships among users and spaces, finishes, and the overall coordination of all parties to the planning and design process. Architectural design teams play a significant role in the inception, planning and design, and the construction phase, of a development project, within the complexity of the construction industry. The purpose of an architectural practice is delivering shelter, functional for human habitation, creating a representative enclosure that illustrates certain values such as culture, belief and function, and providing investment purposes to the building [64]. Architectural design team is one of the members of design team and design teams often with each other repeatedly—frequently with the same individuals—improving their ability to be effective and efficient. Design teams are temporary, multi-organizational and considered as a homogenous organization in relation to the project. Design teams should work cooperatively to achieve effective and efficient performance. Symth [65] showed that trust in the market place is of great significance.

in all teams, leader architects expected to unite the team's objectives and employee architects' objectives. Motivating young architects achieved by allowing them to exercise their creativity, since architectural design teams focus on creativity. Kratzer et al. [68] based a study on engineering design teams and confirmed that leadership promotes creativity when it is moderately centralized in the workflow network, decentralized in the problem-solving network, moderately centralized in the awareness network and very central in the external information network. Working with experienced architects is a way for less experienced employees to learn and continue their education in the field of architecture. Because the level of professionalism among architects is high, this approach may work. Atwater and Carmeli [69] shed light on high-quality relationships between leaders and followers and found that feelings of energy can encourage employees to become involved in creative work. Because creativity is a mentally demanding behavior, people need to feel aroused and energized to perform work tasks creatively. Both leader and followers are architects in project design teams, so the behavior of the leader has to support the followers' increasing creativity in work. The organizational variables that are likely to vary the demands on leaders and require specific leadership behaviors include firm size, the organizational environment and the type of strategy, technology and organizational forms. It is likely that either the differential importance of behaviors or different behaviors will be associated with differences in organizations [70]. The leadership of the employer architects is an important source of motivation. An employer architect must be a leader and an efficient organizer. Clearly, the success of the design project depends on the design team working effectively. The way the architect leads directly relates to the performance of the team and the style of leadership. Individual characteristics such as motivation and personality, as well as environmental factors such as superior's leadership

Negative Leadership in Architectural Design Offices http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75445 77

and job control, considered among the causes of creative behavior [71].

Architects are assuming roles of project designers, project team leaders and project supervisors. Construction industry is multi-disciplinary team-based industry and architects required to have key project management competencies to enable them to perform effectively and efficiently with other professionals. Kwofie et al. [72] found that efficient team leadership is the first critical factor influencing effectiveness of construction projects. In project teams, the project leader considered responsible for the success or failure of the project and thus provides planning and conditions to realize project goals and clear direction, and thus provides project success. Leadership is a factor, which yields desirable interpersonal effectiveness of the team for project success [72]. After the completion of the project, the organization usually continues to work on a different project and does not disband. Still, the structure of architectural design teams differs from that in manufacturing industries, which is characterized by permanent organizational structures. The task is the architectural design project, but the organization does not disband like the other project-based organizations after the completion of the task. In an architectural design team, unlike in the manufacturing industry, a single project undertaken may need a large capital investment. An architectural design team is different from other organizations in the construction industry, and a new style of leadership may be needed. One of the necessities for improving the performance of the architectural project is uniting employees around team objectives. It is not easy to create trust among team members and focus them on team objectives. An

**4.2. Leadership in architectural design teams**

Organizational culture of an architectural design team is the result of interactions between a group of individuals that develop and exchange ideas, beliefs and experiences just like the other teams. Depending on the national cultures of teams, organizational cultures can be similar or different. Lai et al. [64] revealed the status of organizational culture in the architectural design teams in Malaysia that operate slightly different in term of the status of organizational culture, despite similarities to Western and developed countries. In Scotland, organization culture of an architectural design team described as informal and decentralized; the members free to give suggestions, the organizations are willing to tackle risk and uncertainties and members allowed to plan and manage their tasks independently [28]. Turkish Architectural design teams portrayed individualism, assertiveness and freedom as key constituents of their organizational culture. High degrees of freedom and tolerance to risk are the cultural aspects of the most in demand among Turkish architects [64, 66].

#### **4.1. Creativity in architectural design teams**

Creativity is the ability to break away from habit-bound thinking and produce novel and useful ideas. Giving people opportunity and freedom to think in unconventional ways, encourage and develop creativity within organizations [1]. Developing an original product, service or idea makes a socially recognized contribution [2]. Originality and usefulness are the criteria for judging creativity according to conception of creativity [67]. Another definition for creativity is a process by which an individual, group or team produces novel and useful ideas to solve a problem or capture an opportunity [1]. Creativity refers to the production of new and useful ideas and the production of a product, novel and appropriate response, or solution to an open-ended task. The response cannot be merely different, but must be new, valuable, feasible, correct or somehow fitting to a particular goal. The response must also be appropriate to the task to be completed or the problem to solve. Moreover, rather than having a single, obvious solution, the task must be open-ended [68]. Creativity is part of most non-programmed decisions and not something we save for special occasions. Creative process is for finding problems, identifying alternatives and implementing solutions [2]. Intrinsic motivation is the most important determinant of individual creativity according to componential theory of creativity, because it makes the difference between what an individual can do and what an individual will do. Intrinsic motivation is the motivational state that an individual driven by his or her interest in the work and engages in it for the sake of the work itself. Leadership behavior considered as an important contextual factor that enhances or constraints individual creativity through promoting or diminishing intrinsic motivation [67].

In construction, creativity has great resonance and most seen in the work of architects [4]. The study reported by Meng et al. [67] drawing upon the components theory of creativity, cognitive evaluation theory and social exchange theory, confirmed the role of negative leadership in the process of diminishing an individual's intrinsic motivation towards a creative task. Groups and teams have more creative potential than individuals do, especially when the task is complex and novel and there is uncertainty. Because of possessing combined expertise, resources and experience, groups have creative potential [1]. In architectural design teams, as in all teams, leader architects expected to unite the team's objectives and employee architects' objectives. Motivating young architects achieved by allowing them to exercise their creativity, since architectural design teams focus on creativity. Kratzer et al. [68] based a study on engineering design teams and confirmed that leadership promotes creativity when it is moderately centralized in the workflow network, decentralized in the problem-solving network, moderately centralized in the awareness network and very central in the external information network. Working with experienced architects is a way for less experienced employees to learn and continue their education in the field of architecture. Because the level of professionalism among architects is high, this approach may work. Atwater and Carmeli [69] shed light on high-quality relationships between leaders and followers and found that feelings of energy can encourage employees to become involved in creative work. Because creativity is a mentally demanding behavior, people need to feel aroused and energized to perform work tasks creatively. Both leader and followers are architects in project design teams, so the behavior of the leader has to support the followers' increasing creativity in work. The organizational variables that are likely to vary the demands on leaders and require specific leadership behaviors include firm size, the organizational environment and the type of strategy, technology and organizational forms. It is likely that either the differential importance of behaviors or different behaviors will be associated with differences in organizations [70]. The leadership of the employer architects is an important source of motivation. An employer architect must be a leader and an efficient organizer. Clearly, the success of the design project depends on the design team working effectively. The way the architect leads directly relates to the performance of the team and the style of leadership. Individual characteristics such as motivation and personality, as well as environmental factors such as superior's leadership and job control, considered among the causes of creative behavior [71].

#### **4.2. Leadership in architectural design teams**

Design teams should work cooperatively to achieve effective and efficient performance. Symth

Organizational culture of an architectural design team is the result of interactions between a group of individuals that develop and exchange ideas, beliefs and experiences just like the other teams. Depending on the national cultures of teams, organizational cultures can be similar or different. Lai et al. [64] revealed the status of organizational culture in the architectural design teams in Malaysia that operate slightly different in term of the status of organizational culture, despite similarities to Western and developed countries. In Scotland, organization culture of an architectural design team described as informal and decentralized; the members free to give suggestions, the organizations are willing to tackle risk and uncertainties and members allowed to plan and manage their tasks independently [28]. Turkish Architectural design teams portrayed individualism, assertiveness and freedom as key constituents of their organizational culture. High degrees of freedom and tolerance to risk are the cultural aspects

Creativity is the ability to break away from habit-bound thinking and produce novel and useful ideas. Giving people opportunity and freedom to think in unconventional ways, encourage and develop creativity within organizations [1]. Developing an original product, service or idea makes a socially recognized contribution [2]. Originality and usefulness are the criteria for judging creativity according to conception of creativity [67]. Another definition for creativity is a process by which an individual, group or team produces novel and useful ideas to solve a problem or capture an opportunity [1]. Creativity refers to the production of new and useful ideas and the production of a product, novel and appropriate response, or solution to an open-ended task. The response cannot be merely different, but must be new, valuable, feasible, correct or somehow fitting to a particular goal. The response must also be appropriate to the task to be completed or the problem to solve. Moreover, rather than having a single, obvious solution, the task must be open-ended [68]. Creativity is part of most non-programmed decisions and not something we save for special occasions. Creative process is for finding problems, identifying alternatives and implementing solutions [2]. Intrinsic motivation is the most important determinant of individual creativity according to componential theory of creativity, because it makes the difference between what an individual can do and what an individual will do. Intrinsic motivation is the motivational state that an individual driven by his or her interest in the work and engages in it for the sake of the work itself. Leadership behavior considered as an important contextual factor that enhances or constraints individual

[65] showed that trust in the market place is of great significance.

of the most in demand among Turkish architects [64, 66].

creativity through promoting or diminishing intrinsic motivation [67].

In construction, creativity has great resonance and most seen in the work of architects [4]. The study reported by Meng et al. [67] drawing upon the components theory of creativity, cognitive evaluation theory and social exchange theory, confirmed the role of negative leadership in the process of diminishing an individual's intrinsic motivation towards a creative task. Groups and teams have more creative potential than individuals do, especially when the task is complex and novel and there is uncertainty. Because of possessing combined expertise, resources and experience, groups have creative potential [1]. In architectural design teams, as

**4.1. Creativity in architectural design teams**

76 Dark Sides of Organizational Behavior and Leadership

Architects are assuming roles of project designers, project team leaders and project supervisors. Construction industry is multi-disciplinary team-based industry and architects required to have key project management competencies to enable them to perform effectively and efficiently with other professionals. Kwofie et al. [72] found that efficient team leadership is the first critical factor influencing effectiveness of construction projects. In project teams, the project leader considered responsible for the success or failure of the project and thus provides planning and conditions to realize project goals and clear direction, and thus provides project success. Leadership is a factor, which yields desirable interpersonal effectiveness of the team for project success [72].

After the completion of the project, the organization usually continues to work on a different project and does not disband. Still, the structure of architectural design teams differs from that in manufacturing industries, which is characterized by permanent organizational structures. The task is the architectural design project, but the organization does not disband like the other project-based organizations after the completion of the task. In an architectural design team, unlike in the manufacturing industry, a single project undertaken may need a large capital investment. An architectural design team is different from other organizations in the construction industry, and a new style of leadership may be needed. One of the necessities for improving the performance of the architectural project is uniting employees around team objectives. It is not easy to create trust among team members and focus them on team objectives. An architectural design team or other design teams are part of the construction industry, but they differ from other parts of the industry in many ways. In architectural design offices, although the task is temporary, the organization is not a temporary organizational structure.

Cheung et al. [76] suggested the use of charismatic and participative leadership behaviors by design team leaders. Participative leadership behaviors include the use of appropriate delegation, value and reward constructive alternatives, to encourage participation from design team members, while charismatic leadership includes behavior that act as role model for the

Negative Leadership in Architectural Design Offices http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75445 79

**5. Effects of negative leadership on the performance of architectural** 

Benson and Hogan [77] stated that bad leadership inevitably lead to long-term problems and dysfunctional performance, although result in short-term performance is success. Bad or negative leadership has consistence adverse effects on followers, in terms of job satisfaction, affective commitment and psychological well-being [77–79]. Over the long-term, negative behaviors destroys the ability of people to work together productively in an organization. Leaders affect the performance of individuals, groups and the organization through the work climate that they create. The discussion around the negative leadership tended to narcissism, which clearly recognized as an individual trait. Higgs [80] found Narcissism, similarly, has a negative impact on the internal climate and thus could have an adverse effect on long-term performance outcomes. In construction industry, teams are the primary unit, and a construction project of any scale can never realize without a team of people with diverse skills and knowledge created and operate together. When team performance improved, the performance of the industry and the project improved. A project team in the construction industry is group of construction professionals and personnel from one or more organizations. Teamwork is prerequisite for the successful delivery of construction projects and the project team come together to fulfill the necessary design, detailing and construction functions involved in the project. When the projects grow more complex technically, organizationally and contractually, team effort more required. Pectas and Putlar [81] declared that a successfully management of design is critical to quality, cost-effectiveness and timelines of projects with regard to design teams. Arditi and Gunaydın [82] found that collaboration among parties ranked first among the many factors that affect quality in design phase. Good team working practices in design organizations is

subordinates and enables them to feel proud to affiliate with team [76].

important in order to enhance the performance of the projects [83].

The success of the project depends on the performance of each group. Architects are leaders of both the architectural design team and the design team. As the leader of both groups, the relationship between the leader architect and the groups directly related to the project's success. First, an architect is the leader of an architectural design team, and conversely, an architectural design team's members are architects. Coordinating design projects, structural projects and service systems projects is the responsibility of the architect as the team leader. In the design team, the architect is the leader of a team whose members are from different fields and the leader expected to unite them around team objectives, to create an atmosphere that enables team members to perform better. The leadership style of the design team leader affects the productivity of the design team and therefore performance of the construction project. The leadership of an architect is naturally required in all the phases of construction

**design teams**

Architects require a high degree of people skills and social competence to lead. A high level of social competence is required to work in a team and to be able to deal with all kinds of people. Whether it is the partners involved or the tradesperson who will work on implementing the building project, the architect will encounter a large number of professional partners in the course of the project. When a large number of people are working on a project, a high level of successful teamwork is required. Architecture is an attractive profession not only because of the creative design possibilities, but also because there are so many different challenges [73]. Leadership is not only an interpersonal influence, exercised in situations and directed through the communication process, but also consist of more than being an administrator or a manager. Orchestrating the totality of the enterprise with creativity traits of passion for work, independence, goal setting, originality, flexibility, wide range of interests, intelligence and creativity and motivation is effective leadership [74]. If members of the design team do not trust and believe in the owner, the fact of being the owner is not enough to ensure effective team leadership. Charismatic leaders are not widespread in construction-related organizations, but examples found, particularly among architectural practices [4].

Leadership is significant when conflicts occur during the design process. The design project team, as do all working groups, goes through various social action phases. Expectant politeness often marks the initial phase, because the team members tend to be excited, curious and keen to get to know each other better. There may be professional and personal conflicts. In confrontations and tension, people should never lose their objectivity: the architect can be required to be a mediator as well as a coordinator. In this orientation phase, it is necessary to reach the mutual understanding that everyone is working towards the same goal, and this is achieved only by working together and maintaining respectful forms of interaction and behavior. Thus, the design project team can work effectively, powerfully and purposefully towards realizing the project aim. Therefore, it is an essential part of the architect's work, along with effective project management, to direct the planning team with this end clearly in sight, and without it, the planning team may lose sight of its goals [73]. It is necessary to unite the team members around the team objectives. It is not easy to create trust among team members and focus them on team objectives. If the personal objectives of every team member is united with the team objectives, the members will be more eager to achieve the team objectives. It is the leader of the team, who will find solutions to problems. One of the necessities for improving the performance of the project that the leader architect should carry out is uniting the employees around the team objectives. As is true for all groups, it is important for the members of the design teams to trust and believe in their leadership and for the leader to be true to his or her stated values and beliefs. Effective leadership will be lacking when authenticity is lacking [75]. An architectural firm's owner is the formal leader of the design team and the lead architect's behaviors is a main contributor to the performance of the architectural design team.

In most design firms and other knowledge-based or project-based organizations, it is a common practice that leaders, supervisors and managers are appointed based on their technical expertise and not on their leadership skills. In an empirical model for design consultants, Cheung et al. [76] suggested the use of charismatic and participative leadership behaviors by design team leaders. Participative leadership behaviors include the use of appropriate delegation, value and reward constructive alternatives, to encourage participation from design team members, while charismatic leadership includes behavior that act as role model for the subordinates and enables them to feel proud to affiliate with team [76].
