**2. Leadership**

Leaders exist within all organizations, but they may be managers or non-managers. Leaders stimulate a great deal of effort for obtaining individual, group and organizational performance. [1] Leadership is necessary for effective management, but leadership and management are somewhat separate. Management is a mechanical process using techniques, responding to directives from elsewhere and controlling those managed [4]. There are various leadership definitions, and while some of them based on leader characteristics, the other leader behaviors or still others on outcomes or results. A leadership definition is the process of influencing people and providing an environment to facilitate the attainment of organizationally relevant goals [1, 2]. The people led the task, the people performing and the environment in which the people and the task exist are the three important variables with which every leader must deal [1].

Traditionally, leadership is not only seen as a function of hierarchical positions holding status and power, but it is also a complex and controversial topic with many paradoxes. Increasingly, leadership seen as attaching itself to a wider range of individuals lowers down an organization's hierarchy and led to traditional leadership structures challenged, with the emergence of broad organizational structures and team working [4]. Leading others along a way, guiding is another leadership definition. This definition suggests that the leader must help the organization to choose the right path (vision, goal and plan) and help to motivate people [5]. Generating truss, purveying hope, favoring action and risk taking are other common characteristics of leadership. Leaders are proactive and willing to take risk, and provide direction to their followers, remind people what is important, why and what makes an important difference. Leaders are purveyors of hope and in both symbolic and tangible ways reinforce the notion that success attained. Leaders are challenged by many changes occurring within and outside of the organizations. It is very important to be an effective leader, efficiently use and manage the available information technology so that the organization can compete. A leader faces everyday properly aligning the human resources of the organization with the changes occurring requires an understanding of the organization's environment, individual characteristics, group behavior, organizational structure and design, decision making and organizational change processes [1].

Leadership is the combination of motivation, trust and power and affected by the national and organizational culture.

#### **2.1. Motivation**

their goals and find ways to achieve them. Leaders ensure that followers have the motivation, role clarity and suitable work environment to achieve specified goals. [1, 2] Contemporary leaders are most helpful to their organizations, when they are flexible, experimental and open; and they need ways to acquire the understandings and skills necessary to do that [3].

Leadership affects performance of the organizations in different ways, and while sometimes can lead positive effects; some other times can lead negative effects. Architectural design teams, since they are also a kind of organization, effected positively or negatively by the leadership style of their managers. However, architectural design teams have some different properties, when compared to other types of teams. Architectural design teams are projectbased organizations that rely heavily on human resources, but they are not brought together on a temporary basis such as project-based organizations, although architectural design proj-

The architectural design is concerning the size, shape and organization of the spaces within the building and the design process defined by the nature and form of the building construction and its services. The leaders of the architectural design teams are generally the owner of the office. The leader architects must not only be a good designer, but also an effective leader for the success of the project. Leadership styles of the owners of the officers affect the perfor-

The purpose of this chapter is emphasizing the importance of leadership in architectural design teams and discussing the negative results on the performance of the architectural design team.

Leaders exist within all organizations, but they may be managers or non-managers. Leaders stimulate a great deal of effort for obtaining individual, group and organizational performance. [1] Leadership is necessary for effective management, but leadership and management are somewhat separate. Management is a mechanical process using techniques, responding to directives from elsewhere and controlling those managed [4]. There are various leadership definitions, and while some of them based on leader characteristics, the other leader behaviors or still others on outcomes or results. A leadership definition is the process of influencing people and providing an environment to facilitate the attainment of organizationally relevant goals [1, 2]. The people led the task, the people performing and the environment in which the people and the task exist are the three important variables with which every leader must deal [1].

Traditionally, leadership is not only seen as a function of hierarchical positions holding status and power, but it is also a complex and controversial topic with many paradoxes. Increasingly, leadership seen as attaching itself to a wider range of individuals lowers down an organization's hierarchy and led to traditional leadership structures challenged, with the emergence of broad organizational structures and team working [4]. Leading others along a way, guiding is another leadership definition. This definition suggests that the leader must help the organization to choose the right path (vision, goal and plan) and help to motivate people [5]. Generating

ect is temporary, the team is permanent.

68 Dark Sides of Organizational Behavior and Leadership

mance of the team positively or negatively.

**2. Leadership**

One of the key ingredients in employee performance and productivity is motivation. Effective leadership is much more than developing an appropriate vision for the company. Motivating people to follow that vision is critical [5]. People will not get the job done without sufficient motivation to achieve work objectives, even when they clear work objectives, the right skills and a supportive work environment. Motivation is the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary behavior. Motivated employees exert intensity, a particular level of effort; for a certain amount of time, towards a particular goal [2].

Walker [4] defined the motivation for managers to understand the motivation of employees, so that managers can influence employees' behavior and provide motivation, leads to greater job satisfaction and higher performance. Individuality and complexity of people creates many dimensions leading differences in their motivation. The subjective perceptions and preferences of individuals place different values on rewards and the different perceptions they have about the probability of achieving them. [4]

Direction, intensity and persistence are the three distinct components of motivation. When an individual presented with a number of possible alternatives, what an individual chooses to do and preference for a particular outcome related with direction. The employee is motivated, regardless of which option selected. The strength of the response once the direction made and the amount of effort to achieve refers to the intensity component of motivation. Persistence is an important component of motivation and refers to stay power of behavior, how long a person will continue to devote effort, and the strength of the urge to persist when they face obstacles. Managers' influence is not so much one of increasing motivation occasionally, but off creating an environment wherein employee motivation channeled in the right direction at an appropriate level of intensity and continues over time [1, 4].

#### **2.2. Trust**

Trust is ambiguous, complex, paradoxical and perplexing. Trust is a particular level of subjective probability with which an agent assess that another agent or group of agents will perform a particular action, both before he can monitor such action. In construction, focus on trust is evident in the increase in conciliation and other more benign dispute resolution processes and particularly as a major element in the use of relational contracting as a procurement method. Particularly, since the move from the traditional dependence of formal contracts between parties due to the advent of collaborating, the issue of trust affects significantly on the construction industry. Trust between the parties depends upon a greater degree in construction collaborating. Collaborating requires the members of the partnership to have a shared culture based on trust. Seeking cooperation and collaboration through shared cultures will provide a platform for individuals in each organization to trust each other [4].

In project organization, the importance of leadership and power is apparent, since project organization focuses on people [9]. Construction projects bring a diversity of individuals and organizations together, in which power is important. Construction organizations more formally structured with more rigid hierarchies than are design organizations such as architects and specialist interior designers. Members of the architectural design team may be more inclined to conspire to override authority in pursuit of idealistic ideas could be contrary to the objectives of their firms and their clients. Traditionally architects, but sometimes project managers, select the consultants with whom they will work. This gives the architect or the project manager power over the consultants, as they will be unwilling to go against the desires of those who may hold the future work. The potential of future commissions from new sources give power to architects or project managers. The four sources of power found in construction, but expert power is a major force on construction projects. It is likely that the specialization of professional skills contributes to the effectiveness of expertise as a power base. A reputation as an experts gather support from colleagues against less expert members of the team. Referent power particularly reinforced by charisma and the influence that people exercise is because people believe in them. An architect with an international reputation for the design of famous buildings is in a strong position and has a referent power [4]. Fellows et al. [8] investigated aspects of leadership style and power within quantity surveying in both clients' and contractors' project teams in Hong Kong. Power distance is unrelated to either preferred or adopted leadership style; however, relate to the impact of leadership style on perceived performance and group morale as well as subordinate satisfaction. They found that expert power is the most important source of power for project quantity surveyors and supportive style is the most preferred leadership style; since, national culture of Chinese people

Negative Leadership in Architectural Design Offices http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75445 71

A nation's culture affects organizational transactions, such as reward programs, supervisor employee interactions or marketing, conducted. Respect, flexibility and knowledge are important factors for coping with national culture differences are important factors for managers to consider in their plans. It becomes fundamental today for managers to understand both the national culture and various organizational culture characteristics [1]. Both national

Different cultures have different ideas of the nature and different models of management of organizations. Hence, every organization has its own culture or shared systems of meanings. An organization can differentiate its members from other organizations' members with its own culture [10]. The effectiveness of leaders considerably differs across cultures [11]. Hofstede [12] argues that cultural dimensions differ between Western and Eastern nations. Attributes of Western cultures are task-oriented, with relatively low power distance, individualistic and uncertainty avoidant. On the other hand, Eastern societies are high in people-

Organizational culture defined as the basic pattern of shared assumptions, values and beliefs considered being the correct way of employees thinking about and acting on problems and opportunities facing the organization. Organizational culture is a deeply embedded form of social control that influences employee decisions and behavior. Employees motivated to

culture and organizational culture have a profound effect on leadership styles [4].

orientation, collectivism, long-term orientation and have high power distance [12].

are low individualism, harmony and paternalism [8].

**2.4. Organizational culture**

Each representing a different level and form of relationship, there are three types of trust, along with whom to trust. Calculus-based trust is minimal level of trust and refers to an expected consistency of behavior based on deterrence. Knowledge-based trust based on the other parties' predictability, and developed by the meaningful communication and experience. Identificationbased trust grounded on mutual understanding and emotional bond between the parties. Calculus-based trust grounded on each party's beliefs that the other will deliver on its promises because punishments will be administered if they fail. Knowledge-based trust grounded on consistency of the leader's behavior. When employees know leader's past actions, they can predict more accurately, what the leader will do in the future. When one party thinks like, feels like and responds like the other party, identification-based trust occurs. Calculus-based trust is the weakest and identification-based trust is the most robust of all three. Knowledge-based trust developed over time and more stable than calculus-based trust. [2]

In several leadership theories, trust has become a key concept, including charismatic leadership, leader-member exchange theory and transformational leadership. Klausner [6] discussed the emergence of trust and mistrust in leadership relationships from a processual perspective and defined trust as an interactional state characterizing the relationship that trust occurs when both individuals trust each other. Trust results from ongoing leadership interaction and viewed as a state of relationship in general. As a characterization of social relationships, trust is always in motion and not a static phenomenon. Behavior repeatedly perceived as fair by both individuals is a necessary condition on which trust can emerge, since trust based on positive expectations regarding the behavior of the interaction partner. Assuming that fair and unfair behavior are uniformly distributed, mistrust is more likely to occur than trust. In leader-follower relationships, abusive supervision can be understood as a specific form of mistrust [6].

#### **2.3. Power**

Power defined as the capacity of a person, team or organization to influence others [2] or the capability to get someone to do something [1]. Managers and non-mangers use power and it is pervasive part of the fabric of organizational life. Leaders use power to accomplish goals and most of the time to strengthen their own positions. Power is an aspect of the relationship that exits between at least two people. Power must exist in relation to some other person or group; no individual or group can have power in isolation [1]. Power can used positively or negatively. According to French and Bell [7], in the face of conflict, such that self-interest and others' interests balanced or accommodated to promote a nonzero-sum approach is using power positively. Alternatively, in the pursuit of self-interest alone, a zero-sum approach in which the less ethical tactics of deceit, secrecy, etc. are common for using power negatively [8].

In project organization, the importance of leadership and power is apparent, since project organization focuses on people [9]. Construction projects bring a diversity of individuals and organizations together, in which power is important. Construction organizations more formally structured with more rigid hierarchies than are design organizations such as architects and specialist interior designers. Members of the architectural design team may be more inclined to conspire to override authority in pursuit of idealistic ideas could be contrary to the objectives of their firms and their clients. Traditionally architects, but sometimes project managers, select the consultants with whom they will work. This gives the architect or the project manager power over the consultants, as they will be unwilling to go against the desires of those who may hold the future work. The potential of future commissions from new sources give power to architects or project managers. The four sources of power found in construction, but expert power is a major force on construction projects. It is likely that the specialization of professional skills contributes to the effectiveness of expertise as a power base. A reputation as an experts gather support from colleagues against less expert members of the team. Referent power particularly reinforced by charisma and the influence that people exercise is because people believe in them. An architect with an international reputation for the design of famous buildings is in a strong position and has a referent power [4]. Fellows et al. [8] investigated aspects of leadership style and power within quantity surveying in both clients' and contractors' project teams in Hong Kong. Power distance is unrelated to either preferred or adopted leadership style; however, relate to the impact of leadership style on perceived performance and group morale as well as subordinate satisfaction. They found that expert power is the most important source of power for project quantity surveyors and supportive style is the most preferred leadership style; since, national culture of Chinese people are low individualism, harmony and paternalism [8].

#### **2.4. Organizational culture**

a particular action, both before he can monitor such action. In construction, focus on trust is evident in the increase in conciliation and other more benign dispute resolution processes and particularly as a major element in the use of relational contracting as a procurement method. Particularly, since the move from the traditional dependence of formal contracts between parties due to the advent of collaborating, the issue of trust affects significantly on the construction industry. Trust between the parties depends upon a greater degree in construction collaborating. Collaborating requires the members of the partnership to have a shared culture based on trust. Seeking cooperation and collaboration through shared cultures will provide a

Each representing a different level and form of relationship, there are three types of trust, along with whom to trust. Calculus-based trust is minimal level of trust and refers to an expected consistency of behavior based on deterrence. Knowledge-based trust based on the other parties' predictability, and developed by the meaningful communication and experience. Identificationbased trust grounded on mutual understanding and emotional bond between the parties. Calculus-based trust grounded on each party's beliefs that the other will deliver on its promises because punishments will be administered if they fail. Knowledge-based trust grounded on consistency of the leader's behavior. When employees know leader's past actions, they can predict more accurately, what the leader will do in the future. When one party thinks like, feels like and responds like the other party, identification-based trust occurs. Calculus-based trust is the weakest and identification-based trust is the most robust of all three. Knowledge-based

In several leadership theories, trust has become a key concept, including charismatic leadership, leader-member exchange theory and transformational leadership. Klausner [6] discussed the emergence of trust and mistrust in leadership relationships from a processual perspective and defined trust as an interactional state characterizing the relationship that trust occurs when both individuals trust each other. Trust results from ongoing leadership interaction and viewed as a state of relationship in general. As a characterization of social relationships, trust is always in motion and not a static phenomenon. Behavior repeatedly perceived as fair by both individuals is a necessary condition on which trust can emerge, since trust based on positive expectations regarding the behavior of the interaction partner. Assuming that fair and unfair behavior are uniformly distributed, mistrust is more likely to occur than trust. In leader-follower relationships, abusive supervision can be understood as a specific form of mistrust [6].

Power defined as the capacity of a person, team or organization to influence others [2] or the capability to get someone to do something [1]. Managers and non-mangers use power and it is pervasive part of the fabric of organizational life. Leaders use power to accomplish goals and most of the time to strengthen their own positions. Power is an aspect of the relationship that exits between at least two people. Power must exist in relation to some other person or group; no individual or group can have power in isolation [1]. Power can used positively or negatively. According to French and Bell [7], in the face of conflict, such that self-interest and others' interests balanced or accommodated to promote a nonzero-sum approach is using power positively. Alternatively, in the pursuit of self-interest alone, a zero-sum approach in which the less ethical tactics of deceit, secrecy, etc. are common for using power negatively [8].

platform for individuals in each organization to trust each other [4].

70 Dark Sides of Organizational Behavior and Leadership

trust developed over time and more stable than calculus-based trust. [2]

**2.3. Power**

A nation's culture affects organizational transactions, such as reward programs, supervisor employee interactions or marketing, conducted. Respect, flexibility and knowledge are important factors for coping with national culture differences are important factors for managers to consider in their plans. It becomes fundamental today for managers to understand both the national culture and various organizational culture characteristics [1]. Both national culture and organizational culture have a profound effect on leadership styles [4].

Different cultures have different ideas of the nature and different models of management of organizations. Hence, every organization has its own culture or shared systems of meanings. An organization can differentiate its members from other organizations' members with its own culture [10]. The effectiveness of leaders considerably differs across cultures [11]. Hofstede [12] argues that cultural dimensions differ between Western and Eastern nations. Attributes of Western cultures are task-oriented, with relatively low power distance, individualistic and uncertainty avoidant. On the other hand, Eastern societies are high in peopleorientation, collectivism, long-term orientation and have high power distance [12].

Organizational culture defined as the basic pattern of shared assumptions, values and beliefs considered being the correct way of employees thinking about and acting on problems and opportunities facing the organization. Organizational culture is a deeply embedded form of social control that influences employee decisions and behavior. Employees motivated to internalize the organization's dominant culture because it fulfills their need for social identity. Organizational culture defines what is important or unimportant in the company and assists the sense making in the process. Employees can understand organizational events and get on with the task rather than spend time trying to figure out what expected of them. They can reach higher levels of cooperation with each other and communicate more efficiently, since they share common mental models of reality. Culture is one of the few means to tie people together [2]. Culture only sensed or felt through a person's attitudes, emotion and perceptions; it is a part of organizational life, that influences the behavior, attitudes and overall effectiveness of employees; but it cannot be seen. Organizational culture provides and encourages a form of stability and a sense of organizational identity [1]. Bass [13] demonstrated the relationship between the two concepts by examining the impact of different styles of leadership on culture. The ability to understand and work within a certain culture is a prerequisite to leadership effectiveness [14]. Many parts of organizational theory show that leadership studies are unlikely to be of any additive value unless they take into account organizational culture. The relationship between leadership and culture represents an ongoing interplay in which the leaders shapes the culture, and in turn shaped by the existing culture [14, 15].

emphasizes enabling subordinate performance through exercising positive, supportive influence tactics. Various influence tactics used, some of them are downward which include task commitment and individual effectiveness. Hard and soft categories of leader influence tactics are the other types. Hard tactics associated with member compliance or resistance, and soft tactics with member commitment. [17, 18]. Negative influence tactics conceptually similar to hard tactics and lead leaders to believe that they control their subordinate's behavior and performance [19]. In particular, offering just a positive vision of leadership carries the risk of neglecting consideration of the dark sides of leadership, which reflect the hidden aspects of human nature. Leadership is a complex and detailed process marked by lights and shadows, and examination of lights and shadows of leadership allows us to have a complete understanding of a phenomenon much more difficult and problematic than a mere enumeration of

Negative Leadership in Architectural Design Offices http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75445 73

When the leadership style adopted is positive, a culture of empathy and trust [21] developed and the management and staff within the organization become an effective team [22]. However, the cognitive and organizational factors within the partnership can lead to negative leadership behavior then a culture of violent innocence pervades [23] and the organization ultimately fails [24]. Emotions are an important and deep-rooted aspect of organizational life. It is essential to managerial work creating and nourishing a healthy working climate and positive interpersonal relationships [25]. It is obvious that management activities should aim for establishing mutually beneficial interpersonal relationships where partners are able and willing to regulate and adjust emotions [26]. Zineldin and Hytter [27] showed that leadership styles related to subordinates' overall psychological health and well-being. Leaders establish strict regulations and monitor and control subordinate performance, show a negative relation to subordinate well-being [27].

Toor and Ogunlana [28] stated that negative personal attributes of the leader contributing to leadership ineffectiveness be regarded as passive or laissez-faire leadership where the leader takes a very passive approach towards leading and does not show interest in fulfilling his or her responsibilities and duties [29, 30]. In the view of Einarsen et al. [31], laissez-faire leadership is in clear violation of organizational interests as it results in poor efficiency and possibly

The term "negative leadership behavior" refers to generally denunciated and detested behaviors on the part of a leader. Ashforth [32] considers negative leadership as ineffective leadership or absence of leadership. According to Einarsen et al. [31], negative leadership regard to as destructive leadership which means behavior that violates or/and undermine the legitimate interest of organization and well-being of subordinates. Organizational leadership is related to, and predictive of, health and safety-relevant outcomes in employees. The quality of leadership linked to an array of positive or negative outcomes within occupational health psychology. Psychological well-being and organizational safety climate are among the positive outcomes. Employee stress, cardiovascular disease, workplace incidents, injuries and healthrelated behaviors such as alcohol use are among the negative outcomes [33]. Tepper [34] linked abusive supervision in particular with diminished job satisfaction, increased employee distress and defined employees' perception as the leader engaging in a sustained display of hostile verbal and non-verbal behaviors, excluding physical contact. According to Tepper et al. [35], abusive leadership manifests itself in the public ridiculing of subordinates, blaming

undermines well-being, motivation and job satisfaction of subordinates [28].

features, principles and values to follow [20].

It is useful to distinguish strong and weak cultures. Employees share core values in a strong culture. When core values shared and accepted more by the employees, the culture becomes stronger and more influential on the employee behavior [1]. Culture is a complex outcome of external pressures, internal potentials, responses to critical events, and, probably, to some unknown degree, changes factors that could not be predicted from a knowledge of either the environment or the members [15].

Ankrach et al. [16] undertook research into culture within a construction project organization. They found that in terms of factors influencing culture, one of the most important determinants was leadership. In terms of relationships, behaviors, attitudes and organizational systems associated with the culture, one of main dimensions found to be associated with leadership. Clearly, leadership together with other attributes affect performance outcomes [16].

Culture is a powerful force and particularly complex because of subcultures in the construction industry. Subcultures form the base for the dominant culture of most organizations. When an organization becomes larger and more complex, the more likely that subcultures will form. Subcultures often defined by departments and geographical locations and tend to form to reflect specializations, common experience and problems. Although construction industry defined as macho, uncompromising, uncaring, opportunistic and adversarial and a culture of control and command, they are not common to all construction firms contributing to construction projects. Architects and other designers perceived to have a predominantly esthetic culture; engineers a culture of inflexibility; contractors of practicality and adaptability [4].
