**5. Effects of negative leadership on the performance of architectural design teams**

architectural design team or other design teams are part of the construction industry, but they differ from other parts of the industry in many ways. In architectural design offices, although

Architects require a high degree of people skills and social competence to lead. A high level of social competence is required to work in a team and to be able to deal with all kinds of people. Whether it is the partners involved or the tradesperson who will work on implementing the building project, the architect will encounter a large number of professional partners in the course of the project. When a large number of people are working on a project, a high level of successful teamwork is required. Architecture is an attractive profession not only because of the creative design possibilities, but also because there are so many different challenges [73]. Leadership is not only an interpersonal influence, exercised in situations and directed through the communication process, but also consist of more than being an administrator or a manager. Orchestrating the totality of the enterprise with creativity traits of passion for work, independence, goal setting, originality, flexibility, wide range of interests, intelligence and creativity and motivation is effective leadership [74]. If members of the design team do not trust and believe in the owner, the fact of being the owner is not enough to ensure effective team leadership. Charismatic leaders are not widespread in construction-related organiza-

Leadership is significant when conflicts occur during the design process. The design project team, as do all working groups, goes through various social action phases. Expectant politeness often marks the initial phase, because the team members tend to be excited, curious and keen to get to know each other better. There may be professional and personal conflicts. In confrontations and tension, people should never lose their objectivity: the architect can be required to be a mediator as well as a coordinator. In this orientation phase, it is necessary to reach the mutual understanding that everyone is working towards the same goal, and this is achieved only by working together and maintaining respectful forms of interaction and behavior. Thus, the design project team can work effectively, powerfully and purposefully towards realizing the project aim. Therefore, it is an essential part of the architect's work, along with effective project management, to direct the planning team with this end clearly in sight, and without it, the planning team may lose sight of its goals [73]. It is necessary to unite the team members around the team objectives. It is not easy to create trust among team members and focus them on team objectives. If the personal objectives of every team member is united with the team objectives, the members will be more eager to achieve the team objectives. It is the leader of the team, who will find solutions to problems. One of the necessities for improving the performance of the project that the leader architect should carry out is uniting the employees around the team objectives. As is true for all groups, it is important for the members of the design teams to trust and believe in their leadership and for the leader to be true to his or her stated values and beliefs. Effective leadership will be lacking when authenticity is lacking [75]. An architectural firm's owner is the formal leader of the design team and the lead architect's behaviors is a main contributor to the performance of the architectural design team. In most design firms and other knowledge-based or project-based organizations, it is a common practice that leaders, supervisors and managers are appointed based on their technical expertise and not on their leadership skills. In an empirical model for design consultants,

the task is temporary, the organization is not a temporary organizational structure.

78 Dark Sides of Organizational Behavior and Leadership

tions, but examples found, particularly among architectural practices [4].

Benson and Hogan [77] stated that bad leadership inevitably lead to long-term problems and dysfunctional performance, although result in short-term performance is success. Bad or negative leadership has consistence adverse effects on followers, in terms of job satisfaction, affective commitment and psychological well-being [77–79]. Over the long-term, negative behaviors destroys the ability of people to work together productively in an organization. Leaders affect the performance of individuals, groups and the organization through the work climate that they create. The discussion around the negative leadership tended to narcissism, which clearly recognized as an individual trait. Higgs [80] found Narcissism, similarly, has a negative impact on the internal climate and thus could have an adverse effect on long-term performance outcomes.

In construction industry, teams are the primary unit, and a construction project of any scale can never realize without a team of people with diverse skills and knowledge created and operate together. When team performance improved, the performance of the industry and the project improved. A project team in the construction industry is group of construction professionals and personnel from one or more organizations. Teamwork is prerequisite for the successful delivery of construction projects and the project team come together to fulfill the necessary design, detailing and construction functions involved in the project. When the projects grow more complex technically, organizationally and contractually, team effort more required. Pectas and Putlar [81] declared that a successfully management of design is critical to quality, cost-effectiveness and timelines of projects with regard to design teams. Arditi and Gunaydın [82] found that collaboration among parties ranked first among the many factors that affect quality in design phase. Good team working practices in design organizations is important in order to enhance the performance of the projects [83].

The success of the project depends on the performance of each group. Architects are leaders of both the architectural design team and the design team. As the leader of both groups, the relationship between the leader architect and the groups directly related to the project's success. First, an architect is the leader of an architectural design team, and conversely, an architectural design team's members are architects. Coordinating design projects, structural projects and service systems projects is the responsibility of the architect as the team leader. In the design team, the architect is the leader of a team whose members are from different fields and the leader expected to unite them around team objectives, to create an atmosphere that enables team members to perform better. The leadership style of the design team leader affects the productivity of the design team and therefore performance of the construction project. The leadership of an architect is naturally required in all the phases of construction during the interaction of the architect with these different teams and individuals. An architect must not only be a designer, but must also have the ability to coordinate and lead different parts of the construction team. Building projects performed by a design team and the architecture team is a member of that team. The design team members include the architecture team, structural design team and service systems design teams. There are different teams working on plumbing, air conditioning, electricity, central heating and cooling for the design of service systems. Coordinating architectural projects, structural projects and service systems projects is the responsibility of the architect as the team leader. This complicated coordination process requires an effective leadership, hence when the number of teams increases and the members of the teams are from different fields, an effective leadership is a key to solve the disputes.

to perform a non-routine role of creativity is important for the employees [89]. There is a negative relationship between controlling/authoritative leadership and employee creativity at workplace [65–68]. According to Tierney et al. [90], leaders are an important facet of the work context for creativity. Leaders are not only models for employees, they are also in charge of evaluating subordinate's performance, assigning tasks, recommending candidates for higher positions and distributing resources [91]. Thereby, subordinates, especially in high power distance countries, should be more likely to admire their leader's advantages and then devote more attentions to observe their behaviors, in the virtue of the power held by leaders. Therefore, it is rational to presume that the employees can improve their creativity by observing the leader's creative behaviors [92]. Andrews and Farris [93] found that the leaders' technical skills were the best predictor of the group members' creative performance. Mumford et al. [94] reported that the leaders' creative problem solving skills reported to related to the creative performance of the subordinates. A considerable effect on the employee's creativity emerged from the leader's cognitive style [90] and witnessing the leader's creativity facilitate the enhancement of the employee's creativity [92]. Weymes [95] declared that the success of organizations vested in the formation of sustainable relationships, with the primary purpose of leadership to influence the feelings and emotions of those associated with the organization. It is not difficult to create a harmonious family-like organization, since an organization is no more than a group of people comes together for a specific performance and their interactions dictate performance. Through honesty, openness and integrity, an environment of comfort, fairness and trust will emerge thus it will be possible to create a successful organization. The chemistry that generates the essence of a sustainable and successful organization is a calm coordinated environment that portrays an atmosphere of trust and harmony, where individual passions merge to create intensity and invincibility where anything is possible, when action and awareness merge, when there is total concentration on

Negative Leadership in Architectural Design Offices http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75445 81

Tang et al. [96] aimed to examine the relationship between 360° assessment of leadership derailment factors and leadership effectiveness, differences across position-levels and impact of self-other agreement. Since, derailed managers can engender a negative impact at the individual, team and organizational levels, such leaders do not build cohesive teams, or achieve desired business results, windless the morale of coworkers, and fail to meet business objectives. According to Tang et al. [96], derailed managers and executives shared one and more of the following characteristics, such as having problems with interpersonal relationships; failed to effectively hire, build and lead teams; experienced difficulty to adapt or change; failed to meet business objectives; and/or possessed too narrow of a functional orientation [96]. Architectural design is a complicated process and failure of the design process, means failure of the construction process. Hence, success of the construction depends on a successful design process. A successful process of construction begins with a successful architectural design process. Since, architectural design process carried by the design team, success of the team depends on the performance of the architectural design team. Most of the time, when managerial skills of the leader architect are not as good as his/her architectural qualifications team performance can affect negatively. The key problem is architectural qualifications not enough to motive the team members through the objectives of the team, the success of the project and unite personal objectives of the team members with the team objectives. When the leader architect is the owner of the office, leader have the legitimate power, but when the

the task and time passes unnoticed [95].

Leadership and power important are fundamental and intimately related. They are culturally dependent behavioral characteristics with extensive consequences for organization success, performance, and, ultimately survival. Although, leadership and power are separate and individual constructs, each of which merits separate examination to foster appreciation of their operational variables as well as the interactions between them. National and organizational culture underpin both power and leadership, and thus determine the contexts and international environments in which they exercised. Sometimes it becomes a necessity-evolving environment, which means suggesting changes in power structuring and leadership roles within project organizations and so the organizational cultures of constituent firms are likely to respond to those dynamic forces [84]. Leader architect is the owner of the office most of the time, have legitimate power. Sometimes, since the leader is the boss, use coercive power. However, probably, power is more affective among the employee architects, if the leader has expert power. When she/he is a well-known architect, successful in most of the projects, architects can have expert power easily; it becomes easier for them to an affective leader. Cultural differences can result different behaviors on the team members. Tepper [85] declared that the practice of hard influence tactics can be perceived abusive supervision and abusive supervision might be more common in a culture with a higher power distance than in one with a lower power distance. Abusive supervision is among the many negative leadership concepts and can be harmful to organizations and their members. Hu et al. [86] measured equivalence/ invariance of the abusive supervision measure across workers from Taiwan and the United States, and investigated whether or not employees from different countries, Taiwan and the United States, differ in their conceptualization of abusive supervision and in the calibration of their responses to the abusive supervision measure. In societies with strong traditional values such as Taiwan, workers have a higher tolerance towards abusive supervisor. This may be explained with supervisors tend to have a high level of authority and experience fewer restrictions on how they treat lower ranking individuals, and additionally subordinates have little or no authority expected to accept and rationalize supervisory behaviors even if the may regarded as abusive [86]. Liu and Fang [9] stated that performance-oriented leadership has a direct effect on project team performance, and does not rely on motivation and power sharing. Managers' behaviors affect team members' performance indirectly and their extrinsic and intrinsic motivation towards achievement of the goals [9].

Architecture is a profession that requires creativity, and not only the leader architects but also members of the architectural design team required to be creative. Creativity seeks out new work and novel ideas related to developing new opportunities [87]. Hence, seeking new opportunities forces employees to disagree with leader [88], supportive behavior of leader to perform a non-routine role of creativity is important for the employees [89]. There is a negative relationship between controlling/authoritative leadership and employee creativity at workplace [65–68]. According to Tierney et al. [90], leaders are an important facet of the work context for creativity. Leaders are not only models for employees, they are also in charge of evaluating subordinate's performance, assigning tasks, recommending candidates for higher positions and distributing resources [91]. Thereby, subordinates, especially in high power distance countries, should be more likely to admire their leader's advantages and then devote more attentions to observe their behaviors, in the virtue of the power held by leaders. Therefore, it is rational to presume that the employees can improve their creativity by observing the leader's creative behaviors [92]. Andrews and Farris [93] found that the leaders' technical skills were the best predictor of the group members' creative performance. Mumford et al. [94] reported that the leaders' creative problem solving skills reported to related to the creative performance of the subordinates. A considerable effect on the employee's creativity emerged from the leader's cognitive style [90] and witnessing the leader's creativity facilitate the enhancement of the employee's creativity [92]. Weymes [95] declared that the success of organizations vested in the formation of sustainable relationships, with the primary purpose of leadership to influence the feelings and emotions of those associated with the organization. It is not difficult to create a harmonious family-like organization, since an organization is no more than a group of people comes together for a specific performance and their interactions dictate performance. Through honesty, openness and integrity, an environment of comfort, fairness and trust will emerge thus it will be possible to create a successful organization. The chemistry that generates the essence of a sustainable and successful organization is a calm coordinated environment that portrays an atmosphere of trust and harmony, where individual passions merge to create intensity and invincibility where anything is possible, when action and awareness merge, when there is total concentration on the task and time passes unnoticed [95].

during the interaction of the architect with these different teams and individuals. An architect must not only be a designer, but must also have the ability to coordinate and lead different parts of the construction team. Building projects performed by a design team and the architecture team is a member of that team. The design team members include the architecture team, structural design team and service systems design teams. There are different teams working on plumbing, air conditioning, electricity, central heating and cooling for the design of service systems. Coordinating architectural projects, structural projects and service systems projects is the responsibility of the architect as the team leader. This complicated coordination process requires an effective leadership, hence when the number of teams increases and the members of the teams are from different fields, an effective leadership is a key to solve the disputes. Leadership and power important are fundamental and intimately related. They are culturally dependent behavioral characteristics with extensive consequences for organization success, performance, and, ultimately survival. Although, leadership and power are separate and individual constructs, each of which merits separate examination to foster appreciation of their operational variables as well as the interactions between them. National and organizational culture underpin both power and leadership, and thus determine the contexts and international environments in which they exercised. Sometimes it becomes a necessity-evolving environment, which means suggesting changes in power structuring and leadership roles within project organizations and so the organizational cultures of constituent firms are likely to respond to those dynamic forces [84]. Leader architect is the owner of the office most of the time, have legitimate power. Sometimes, since the leader is the boss, use coercive power. However, probably, power is more affective among the employee architects, if the leader has expert power. When she/he is a well-known architect, successful in most of the projects, architects can have expert power easily; it becomes easier for them to an affective leader. Cultural differences can result different behaviors on the team members. Tepper [85] declared that the practice of hard influence tactics can be perceived abusive supervision and abusive supervision might be more common in a culture with a higher power distance than in one with a lower power distance. Abusive supervision is among the many negative leadership concepts and can be harmful to organizations and their members. Hu et al. [86] measured equivalence/ invariance of the abusive supervision measure across workers from Taiwan and the United States, and investigated whether or not employees from different countries, Taiwan and the United States, differ in their conceptualization of abusive supervision and in the calibration of their responses to the abusive supervision measure. In societies with strong traditional values such as Taiwan, workers have a higher tolerance towards abusive supervisor. This may be explained with supervisors tend to have a high level of authority and experience fewer restrictions on how they treat lower ranking individuals, and additionally subordinates have little or no authority expected to accept and rationalize supervisory behaviors even if the may regarded as abusive [86]. Liu and Fang [9] stated that performance-oriented leadership has a direct effect on project team performance, and does not rely on motivation and power sharing. Managers' behaviors affect team members' performance indirectly and their extrinsic

80 Dark Sides of Organizational Behavior and Leadership

and intrinsic motivation towards achievement of the goals [9].

Architecture is a profession that requires creativity, and not only the leader architects but also members of the architectural design team required to be creative. Creativity seeks out new work and novel ideas related to developing new opportunities [87]. Hence, seeking new opportunities forces employees to disagree with leader [88], supportive behavior of leader Tang et al. [96] aimed to examine the relationship between 360° assessment of leadership derailment factors and leadership effectiveness, differences across position-levels and impact of self-other agreement. Since, derailed managers can engender a negative impact at the individual, team and organizational levels, such leaders do not build cohesive teams, or achieve desired business results, windless the morale of coworkers, and fail to meet business objectives. According to Tang et al. [96], derailed managers and executives shared one and more of the following characteristics, such as having problems with interpersonal relationships; failed to effectively hire, build and lead teams; experienced difficulty to adapt or change; failed to meet business objectives; and/or possessed too narrow of a functional orientation [96]. Architectural design is a complicated process and failure of the design process, means failure of the construction process. Hence, success of the construction depends on a successful design process. A successful process of construction begins with a successful architectural design process. Since, architectural design process carried by the design team, success of the team depends on the performance of the architectural design team. Most of the time, when managerial skills of the leader architect are not as good as his/her architectural qualifications team performance can affect negatively. The key problem is architectural qualifications not enough to motive the team members through the objectives of the team, the success of the project and unite personal objectives of the team members with the team objectives. When the leader architect is the owner of the office, leader have the legitimate power, but when the leader architect is a well-known architect, architectural qualifications of the leader architect help the leader architect have the expert power.

Leader of the architectural design team is not only responsible for the success, but also failure of the projects. When the team members do not trust and believe in their leader, the leader cannot manage the team effectively. Architectural design involves creativity and affective teamwork. It is the leader who create productive working environment. Since, architectural design process involves creativity, and creativity of the team members are affected by their emotional state, depending on the behavior of the leader architect, the performance and productivity of the team can be affected negatively. When the team members do not motivate, and share team objectives as their own objectives, or do not combine their personal objectives with the team objectives, the project success will be affected negatively. Sometimes ruthless, egocentric, irritable behaviors of leaders or personality characteristics will affect negatively the success of the project. It is possible; also, team members lose their desire and motivation to work, sometimes instead of working they may prefer to look for alternative jobs. Negative leadership behaviors within an organization can cause demotivation among the design team members. A competent team leader is required to manage various tasks among design team members, because of the fragmented nature of

Negative Leadership in Architectural Design Offices http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75445 83

Although leadership has always been a popular topic in every field, a growing interest and a broad range of discussions continued on the subject in recent years. The focus of the studies was its positive effects on the performance of the teams. Effective team management becomes important in architectural design teams, since the design process is complex and involves creativity. Architecture, as a profession involve creativity, although depending on the national and organizational culture of the team, behaviors of leader architects may change, but when the behaviors of their leader affect negatively, it is inevitable that their performance and success of the project is affected negatively. The importance of leadership, styles or behaviors of leaders, the relationship of motivation, trust, power or culture are all attract attention. Effective leadership needed to enable effective team management. Leadership style of the architectural design team leader can affect the performance of the team and productivity negatively. If architects do not aware of their negative behaviors, sometimes they do not aware of the negative results of their behaviors, especially the

design tasks [97].

**6. Conclusion**

**Author details**

Esin Kasapoğlu

negative effects on the performance of the team.

Address all correspondence to: ekasapoglu@iku.edu.tr

Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul Kultur University, Istanbul, Turkey

Cheung et al. [76] suggested the use of charismatic and participative leadership behaviors by design team leaders. Their results found that charismatic and participative leadership behaviors as the most critical leadership behaviors as far as satisfaction are concerned. Charismatic leadership behavior includes acting as a role model for the subordinates and enables them to feel proud to affiliate with team. Nevertheless, when the leader use coercive power, the team members affected negatively. Participative leadership behavior includes the use of appropriate delegation, value and reward constructive alternatives, to encourage, participation from design team members. It is significant for the success of the project that the design team leaders should make every endeavor to set a good example in team working to the other members and provide the design team members with more opportunities to participate throughout the design process [97]. Architecture is a profession that involves not only team working, but also individuality. Most of the architects do not like to share responsibility of design. In architectural design teams, participation means designing with the team and sharing responsibility of design with the team. Most of the time, employee architects are not satisfied with their job, when they do not participate in design. In architectural design teams, there may be different results, when there is an effective leader on the positive side, or when there is a leader on the negative side. Most of the time leaders of architectural design teams are not aware of the serious results of their behaviors, even their leadership role in the teams. Most of the time unaware of their negative behaviors, they affect negatively the performance of their teams. Since, most of the team members are young architects; the results of their negative behaviors can become serious than predicted.

Negative leadership behaviors can cause demotivation; especially since the fragmented nature of design, tasks require a competent team leader to manage various tasks among design team members. Oyedele [97] citing Cheung et al. [76] highlighted that if design team members are not satisfied with their team leader, the morale of a design team can adversely affected. Being ruthless, asocial (self-centered), irritable (malevolent), loner (self-centered), egocentric, non-explicit (face-saver), non-cooperative (malevolent) and dictatorial (autocratic) contribute to inept leadership behavior that causes demotivation to employees. Inadequate leadership support, lack of open interaction between superior and subordinates, display of no interest in subordinates' work and non-recognition of effort, lack of synergy between organizational goals and leadership behaviors and changing project priorities by supervisors are other relevant criteria. According to the findings of Toor and Ogunlana [28], both negative personal attributes and organizational impediments or neutralizers can be detrimental to the effectiveness of leadership in construction projects. Wrongful use of power, poor ability to communicate, lack of experience and lack of ability to control complex circumstances are among negative personal attributes. Organizational impediments or neutralizers are such as lack of resources, lack of planning and control, lack of strategic management and lack of top management support. Therefore, it is important to not only develop the positive personal attributes of leadership in project managers, but also pay attention to reducing the factors that negatively affect their performance and effectiveness [28].

Leader of the architectural design team is not only responsible for the success, but also failure of the projects. When the team members do not trust and believe in their leader, the leader cannot manage the team effectively. Architectural design involves creativity and affective teamwork. It is the leader who create productive working environment. Since, architectural design process involves creativity, and creativity of the team members are affected by their emotional state, depending on the behavior of the leader architect, the performance and productivity of the team can be affected negatively. When the team members do not motivate, and share team objectives as their own objectives, or do not combine their personal objectives with the team objectives, the project success will be affected negatively. Sometimes ruthless, egocentric, irritable behaviors of leaders or personality characteristics will affect negatively the success of the project. It is possible; also, team members lose their desire and motivation to work, sometimes instead of working they may prefer to look for alternative jobs. Negative leadership behaviors within an organization can cause demotivation among the design team members. A competent team leader is required to manage various tasks among design team members, because of the fragmented nature of design tasks [97].
