Preface

**Section 3 Individual Social Responsibility 125**

**VI** Contents

**Counterfeit Goods 127** Joy M. Kozar and Shuyi Huang

Chapter 8 **Examining Chinese Consumers' Knowledge, Face-Saving, Materialistic, and Ethical Values with Attitudes of**

> Social responsibility – what exactly does it mean? How important is it in market driven, cap‐ italist societies? The construct is not black or white, different people (and corporations) look at it through a different lens; there are advocates as well as critics of the concept. In trying to be objective but more so advocating social justice, some explanations are necessary and I am taking the opportunity to use several scholarly articles as well a TV program, radio broadcast and newspaper articles to convey the point that systemic changes are needed. Let's begin with what corporate social responsibility actually entails. J. Snider, R. P. Hill, R. and D. Martin [1] discuss four pillars of corporate social responsibility: economic, legal, ethi‐ cal, and discretionary: Economic responsibility means to make profit and expand the busi‐ ness. Legal responsibility refers to obeying the law. The ethical component means that companies have to respect the rights of others and meet the obligations placed on them by society to ensure these rights. The discretionary component indicates philanthropic activities that support the broader community. Snider et al. find that these components look simple enough to be followed, however, considering the global market economy, different rules and regulations of different globalised companies, different basic characteristics of human behaviour, and different circumstances, make following clear and reliable guidelines diffi‐ cult. That may be so, but acknowledging recent environmental disasters, air pollution and climate change, deforestation, species extinction, soil degradation, asbestos mortalities, working conditions in sweatshops, and corporate (mis)management, there is clearly an ur‐ gent need to clarify corporate social responsibility and to legalize it. During the last few years, some changes have occurred after the public threatened to boycott certain products. These changes were implemented or enforced by trade policies or government negotiations, but they are not sufficient to worldwide save environmental destruction or to create safe work places.

> Interestingly, according to T. L. Besser [2], a certain connection between business and society has been the subject of social scientists and philosophers at least since the industrial revolu‐ tion; in fact "the works of Marx, Comte, Durkheim, Weber, Toennies, Spencer, were prompt‐ ed by the authors' desire to explain the societal antecedents and consequences of the forces of capitalism" (p. 14) The author also argues that in modern society more than ever power and wealth equals responsibility, i.e. businesses do have ethical and discretionary social re‐ sponsibility. Scholars such as T. Bivins [3], J. Snider et al. [4], D. Clift and G. Wells [5], as well as P. Schreck [6] confirm this point of view. Schreck starts his book with the words "Twenty years after the end of communism, problems of business ethics in capitalism have become increasingly important" (p. v). Advocates argue that corporations should act social‐ ly responsible, business should benefit its stakeholders as well as the overall community. Critics, particularly earlier ones, the most well-known being Milton Friedman [7] in the

1970s, argue that business exists to make profit. Really? Attitudes have changed since then, but several international disasters during the last few years demonstrate the need for strict rules and regulations. Here are some of Australia's mining tragedies, which came to mind when considering to edit this book: Moura, 1994, an explosion trapped eleven miners, an‐ other explosion occurred preventing rescue efforts, the mine was sealed, leaving the bodies undiscovered [8]. Newcastle, 1996, a mine that had been abandoned eighty years ago be‐ came a tragedy for four men who were mining [9]. Northparkes, 1999, four miners were killed because of a wind-blast [10]. Beaconsfield, Tasmania, 2006, the mine collapsed bury‐ ing seventeen people (14 escaped, two were found alive after a fortnight using a remote-con‐ trolled devise, but one miner died) [11]. There is also the re-emergence of coal workers' pneumoconiosis - mining related lung disease in Australia, 2016 [12]. On an international scale, mining in Indonesia, Rio Tinto-Zinc Corporation (RTZ), a multinational corporation in which Australia is involved, registered the following accidents: in 2003, the Grasberg mine recorded two miners were killed, five injured and six were missing [13]; in 2012 twentyeight miners lost their lives [14], and in 2014 five miners were killed [15]. IndustriALL Un‐ ion, who is protective of human rights and workers' safety, finds that Rio Tinto is not facing up to its responsibility. In 2017, Britain's Serious Fraud Office [16] opened an investigation into Rio Tinto for suspected corruption in the development of the world's largest unexploit‐ ed iron-ore deposit in Guinea; the Australian police also investigated.

Coming back to the bigger picture and looking at modern societies, acting responsibly to sustain the environment and to improve society overall is very important; companies should have an obligation to take into account the society at large and improve its welfare inde‐ pendent of direct benefits to the company. And this should be endorsed by law. The Euro‐ pean Union has legalised corporate social responsibility in April 2014, "the European Parliament adopted provisions requiring companies to disclose information on their envi‐ ronmental, labor, and human rights impacts, in addition to the financial reports they already deliver" [25]. Australia is still considering it: "Due to the limitations of the voluntary ap‐ proach, there has been a movement to encompass CSR into regulation in order to ensure corporate compliance with social, environmental and human rights issues" [26]. What does it mean that "there has been a movement"? Are there any consequences of the "movement", asks my critical voice. Blackman, Kennedy and Quazi [27] researched corporate social re‐ sponsibility and individual resistance within organisations. They argue that a whole new way of thinking is necessary and, following Aguilera et al. (2007), that individual staff need to be trained to follow certain thought processes which must be 'instrumental', 'relational' and 'moral' (p. 241). When researching for this book, an advertisement of Technische Uni‐ versitaet Dresden, Germany [28], caught the eye. A degree programme entitled 'Corporate Social Responsibility' is offered to develop managerial skills for students who want to enter the corporate world. Long-term and sustainable economic success is promoted because "so‐ cial responsibility increases the chances for innovative services and products". This is an im‐ portant vision and could serve as guideline. It is also a common thread throughout this book; acting in a socially responsible way will increase economic success for all those in‐ volved in business, it will protect, at least to a certain extent, the fauna and flora, and create secure and safe working environments. One of the chapters in the book is about teaching

In the hope that the critical analyses presented in this book will inspire the reader; on behalf of the authors, I would like to thank you for your concern! May the force be with you!

[1] Snider J, Hill RP, Martin, D. Corporate social Responsibility in the 21st Century: A View from the World's most successful Firms. J of Business Ethics. 2003; 48, 175-187. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:BUSI.

[2] Besser TL. The conscience of capitalism: Business social responsibility to com‐ munities. Westport, CT 06881, USA: Praeger Pulishers; 2002. pp. 150-156. [3] Bivins T. Responsibility and Accountability. J of Social Philosophy, 2012; 35(3): 19-38. Retrieved from: https://scholar.google.com.au/ also: homepages.se.edu/ cvonbergen/files/2012/12/responsibility-and-Accountability1.pdf. [Accessed:

**Ingrid Muenstermann**

Australia

Preface IX

College of Nursing and Health Sciences Flinders University of South Australia

social responsibility

**References**

00000046046.29523.db.

2018-06-23].

But people working in mines are not the only ones experiencing the corporations' neglect of social responsibility. Here are other cases of deceit, maltreatment and exploitation: Nike's outsourcing of the workforce [17]; Apple's broken promises [18]; Volkswagen's efforts to circumvent emissions control [19]; and James Hardie's use of asbestos and their very slow process (avoidance) of mesothelioma claims [20, 21]. In December 2017, the Australian Gov‐ ernor General ordered a Royal Commission into Misconduct in the Banking, Superannua‐ tion and Financial Services Industry [22], which has uncovered appalling, unethical behaviours and corrupt deals which have led to personal tragedies; the investigation is still ongoing and criminal charges are being considered.

Considering the points of reference social institutions and companies create and make known to the public, the outcome of their actions have been hypocritical and the effects have been disastrous, as the above examples demonstrate. But hypocrisy does not only relate to the corporate sector, it should be rooted in the individual, as P. Antonetti, F. Bowen and D. Manika [23] argue in their call for conference papers: "this greater need for authentic and sincere corporate social responsibility has also resulted in a push for individual social re‐ sponsibility". On the big scale the salaries of CEOs of banks and large corporations can be a considered [24]. On a much smaller scale, the thought of individual responsibility came to mind when I entered the kitchen of our college yesterday. Early in the morning, to get my usual coffee, there was a big cake in a cardboard box on the table with a note, 'Please help yourself to some cake'. The note was not signed but it can be assumed that the donor want‐ ed to convey a note of thanks. Late in the afternoon, before leaving university, the empty box with some crumbs, the note and the dirty cake knife were still on the table. No one who had enjoyed a piece of cake had felt a commitment to dispose of the box or wash the knife. Does this demonstrate a lack of individual social responsibility? Is this a sign of our time, of a society in which individualism, eccentricity, has become so important that any notion of individual responsibility is being neglected?

Coming back to the bigger picture and looking at modern societies, acting responsibly to sustain the environment and to improve society overall is very important; companies should have an obligation to take into account the society at large and improve its welfare inde‐ pendent of direct benefits to the company. And this should be endorsed by law. The Euro‐ pean Union has legalised corporate social responsibility in April 2014, "the European Parliament adopted provisions requiring companies to disclose information on their envi‐ ronmental, labor, and human rights impacts, in addition to the financial reports they already deliver" [25]. Australia is still considering it: "Due to the limitations of the voluntary ap‐ proach, there has been a movement to encompass CSR into regulation in order to ensure corporate compliance with social, environmental and human rights issues" [26]. What does it mean that "there has been a movement"? Are there any consequences of the "movement", asks my critical voice. Blackman, Kennedy and Quazi [27] researched corporate social re‐ sponsibility and individual resistance within organisations. They argue that a whole new way of thinking is necessary and, following Aguilera et al. (2007), that individual staff need to be trained to follow certain thought processes which must be 'instrumental', 'relational' and 'moral' (p. 241). When researching for this book, an advertisement of Technische Uni‐ versitaet Dresden, Germany [28], caught the eye. A degree programme entitled 'Corporate Social Responsibility' is offered to develop managerial skills for students who want to enter the corporate world. Long-term and sustainable economic success is promoted because "so‐ cial responsibility increases the chances for innovative services and products". This is an im‐ portant vision and could serve as guideline. It is also a common thread throughout this book; acting in a socially responsible way will increase economic success for all those in‐ volved in business, it will protect, at least to a certain extent, the fauna and flora, and create secure and safe working environments. One of the chapters in the book is about teaching social responsibility

In the hope that the critical analyses presented in this book will inspire the reader; on behalf of the authors, I would like to thank you for your concern! May the force be with you!

> **Ingrid Muenstermann** College of Nursing and Health Sciences Flinders University of South Australia Australia

#### **References**

1970s, argue that business exists to make profit. Really? Attitudes have changed since then, but several international disasters during the last few years demonstrate the need for strict rules and regulations. Here are some of Australia's mining tragedies, which came to mind when considering to edit this book: Moura, 1994, an explosion trapped eleven miners, an‐ other explosion occurred preventing rescue efforts, the mine was sealed, leaving the bodies undiscovered [8]. Newcastle, 1996, a mine that had been abandoned eighty years ago be‐ came a tragedy for four men who were mining [9]. Northparkes, 1999, four miners were killed because of a wind-blast [10]. Beaconsfield, Tasmania, 2006, the mine collapsed bury‐ ing seventeen people (14 escaped, two were found alive after a fortnight using a remote-con‐ trolled devise, but one miner died) [11]. There is also the re-emergence of coal workers' pneumoconiosis - mining related lung disease in Australia, 2016 [12]. On an international scale, mining in Indonesia, Rio Tinto-Zinc Corporation (RTZ), a multinational corporation in which Australia is involved, registered the following accidents: in 2003, the Grasberg mine recorded two miners were killed, five injured and six were missing [13]; in 2012 twentyeight miners lost their lives [14], and in 2014 five miners were killed [15]. IndustriALL Un‐ ion, who is protective of human rights and workers' safety, finds that Rio Tinto is not facing up to its responsibility. In 2017, Britain's Serious Fraud Office [16] opened an investigation into Rio Tinto for suspected corruption in the development of the world's largest unexploit‐

But people working in mines are not the only ones experiencing the corporations' neglect of social responsibility. Here are other cases of deceit, maltreatment and exploitation: Nike's outsourcing of the workforce [17]; Apple's broken promises [18]; Volkswagen's efforts to circumvent emissions control [19]; and James Hardie's use of asbestos and their very slow process (avoidance) of mesothelioma claims [20, 21]. In December 2017, the Australian Gov‐ ernor General ordered a Royal Commission into Misconduct in the Banking, Superannua‐ tion and Financial Services Industry [22], which has uncovered appalling, unethical behaviours and corrupt deals which have led to personal tragedies; the investigation is still

Considering the points of reference social institutions and companies create and make known to the public, the outcome of their actions have been hypocritical and the effects have been disastrous, as the above examples demonstrate. But hypocrisy does not only relate to the corporate sector, it should be rooted in the individual, as P. Antonetti, F. Bowen and D. Manika [23] argue in their call for conference papers: "this greater need for authentic and sincere corporate social responsibility has also resulted in a push for individual social re‐ sponsibility". On the big scale the salaries of CEOs of banks and large corporations can be a considered [24]. On a much smaller scale, the thought of individual responsibility came to mind when I entered the kitchen of our college yesterday. Early in the morning, to get my usual coffee, there was a big cake in a cardboard box on the table with a note, 'Please help yourself to some cake'. The note was not signed but it can be assumed that the donor want‐ ed to convey a note of thanks. Late in the afternoon, before leaving university, the empty box with some crumbs, the note and the dirty cake knife were still on the table. No one who had enjoyed a piece of cake had felt a commitment to dispose of the box or wash the knife. Does this demonstrate a lack of individual social responsibility? Is this a sign of our time, of a society in which individualism, eccentricity, has become so important that any notion of

ed iron-ore deposit in Guinea; the Australian police also investigated.

ongoing and criminal charges are being considered.

VIII Preface

individual responsibility is being neglected?


[4] Snider J, Hill RP, Martin D. Corporate social Responsibility in the 21st Century: A View from the World's most successful Firms. J of Business Ethic. 2003; 48: 175-187. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:BUSI. 00000046046.29523.db.

[19] Dans E. Volkswagen and the Failure of Corporate Responsibility. Forbes Leader‐ ship; 2015-09-27. Retrieved from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/enriquedans/

Preface XI

[20] Australian Securities and Investments Commission. ASIC Commences Proceed‐ ings Relating to James Hardie; 2007. Retrieved from: http://www.asic.gov.au/asic/ asic.nsf/byheadline/07-35+ASIC+commences+proceedings+relating+to+James

[21] Peacock M. (5.2.2018). James Hardie accused of using 'same old tricks' to avoid asbestos compensation. Australian Broadcasting Corporation News; 2018-02-05. Retrieved from: www.abc.net.au/2018-02-05/james-hardie-up-to-same-old-tricks-

[22] Royal Commission into Misconduct in the Banking, Superannuation and Finan‐ cial Services Industry (December 2017). Retrieved from: RoyalCommissionCoor‐

[23] Antonetti P, Bowen F, Manika D. Hypocrisy in Corporate and Individual social Responsibility: Causes, Consequences and Implications. J of Business Research, Elsevier; 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-busi‐

[24] Ryan, P. Australia Post's former CEO Ahmed Fahour walks away with \$10.8 mil‐ lion pay package. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-25/ahmed-fahour-walks-

[25] Massé, E. European Parliament approves mandatory corporate social responsibil‐ ity rules. Business and Human Rights, European Parliament, Regulation Report‐ ing; 2014-04-17. Retrieved from: http://www,accessnow.org/european-parliament-

approves-mandatory-corporate-responsibility-rule/. [Accessed: 2018-04-20]. [26] Thirarungrueang, Kunnawee. Rethinking CSR in Australia: time for binding reg‐ ulation? Int J of Law and Management; 2013. 55 (3). pp. 173-200. Retrieved from: https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/17542431311327628 [Accessed

[27] Blackman, D., Kennedy, M. & Quazim, A. Management Learning; 2013. 44(3), 237-252. Retrieved from: journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1350507612444392.

[28] Technische Universitaet Dresden. Degree Program Sociology: Corporate Social Responsibility Standards and Ethical Measures; 2018. Retrieved from: https://tudresden.de/ihi-zittau/studium/studienangebot/business-ethics-und-scr-manage‐

2015/09/27 [Accessed: 2017-09-07].

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[4] Snider J, Hill RP, Martin D. Corporate social Responsibility in the 21st Century: A View from the World's most successful Firms. J of Business Ethic. 2003; 48: 175-187. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:BUSI.

[5] Clift D, Wells G. Sustainability in Australian Business – Fundamental Principles and Practice, Chapter 7, Strategy. Milton Qld., Australia: John Wiley & Sons;

[6] Schreck, P. The Business Case for Corporate social Responsibility. Understanding and Measuring Economic Impacts of Corporate Social Performance. Heidelberg,

[7] Friedman, Milton. The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits. The New York Times Company, 1970-09-13. Retrieved from: http://www.colora‐ do.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business... [Ac‐

[8] Hopkins, A. Managing major Hazards - The Lessons of the Moura Mine Disaster.

[9] Gretley Collier 1996. Mine Accidents and Disasters. Mining Accident Database;

[10] NorthParkes Airblast 1999. Mine Accidents and Disasters. Mining Accident Data‐

[11] Beaconsfield 2006. Beaconsfield Gold Mine – Fall / Fall of ground. Mining Acci‐

[12] Senate Committee on Health. Fifth Interim Report, Black Lung; 2016. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Senate Printing Unit. Retrieved from: https:// www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary\_Business/Committee/Senate/Health/Health/

[13] Giannone, J. A. (Reuters), reported in MAC.Major Disaster Strikes Freeport-Rio Tinto; 2003-10-11. Indonesian Mine. Retrieved from www.minesandcommuni‐

[14] IndustriALL Global Union (n.d.). Unsustainable: The ugly truth about Rio Tinto.

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[16] AFP. UK Serious Fraud Office probes RioTinto Guinea project. The Citizen; 2017-07-25. Retrieved from https://citizen.co.za/news/news-africa/1584247/

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X Preface

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base; 2018.


**Section 1**

**Adopting Social Responsibility into the**

**Teaching Sector**

**Adopting Social Responsibility into the Teaching Sector**

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**World Society: An Ice-Breaker for a Global Shift in**

**World Society: An Ice-Breaker for a Global Shift in** 

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.75048

Conceptualizations of world society represent elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles in sociology. In this research field, nation-state myths have been disenchanted, the local is identified as global and vice versa, and the central concept of sociology—that of society, which has always been manifold and controversial within the discipline becomes relevant again. World society approaches require the self-reflexive perspective of the constitutive conditions of the discipline of science. They also make essential contributions to the de-nationalization of concepts and to methods of empirical research. Thus conceptuality refers to the stepping out of a national context and the opening out to the global level as a reference framework for analysis. In addition, conceptualizations of world society are an important contribution to the *global social responsibility* of science. Sociology has, thanks to world society approaches, constructive plans to put forward a *global shift* of the discipline of science. For sociologists, this project will be a central chal-

lenge of the twenty-first century at the *construction site of sociology*.

**Keywords:** world society, elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles, development trends of sociology, global social responsibility, global shift

Since the beginning of sociology's establishment as a scientific discipline, a plurality of approaches has existed. The increasing internationalization of the social sciences makes it difficult for a *national sociological tradition* to take the initiative to strengthen the intellectual cohesion of this scientific discipline. However, what intellectual development has not been able to achieve itself has been done almost unnoticed by social processes. The decisive factor

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Sociology?**

**Sociology?**

Veronika Wittmann

Veronika Wittmann

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75048

#### **World Society: An Ice-Breaker for a Global Shift in Sociology? World Society: An Ice-Breaker for a Global Shift in Sociology?**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.75048

#### Veronika Wittmann Veronika Wittmann

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75048

#### **Abstract**

Conceptualizations of world society represent elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles in sociology. In this research field, nation-state myths have been disenchanted, the local is identified as global and vice versa, and the central concept of sociology—that of society, which has always been manifold and controversial within the discipline becomes relevant again. World society approaches require the self-reflexive perspective of the constitutive conditions of the discipline of science. They also make essential contributions to the de-nationalization of concepts and to methods of empirical research. Thus conceptuality refers to the stepping out of a national context and the opening out to the global level as a reference framework for analysis. In addition, conceptualizations of world society are an important contribution to the *global social responsibility* of science. Sociology has, thanks to world society approaches, constructive plans to put forward a *global shift* of the discipline of science. For sociologists, this project will be a central challenge of the twenty-first century at the *construction site of sociology*.

**Keywords:** world society, elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles, development trends of sociology, global social responsibility, global shift

#### **1. Introduction**

Since the beginning of sociology's establishment as a scientific discipline, a plurality of approaches has existed. The increasing internationalization of the social sciences makes it difficult for a *national sociological tradition* to take the initiative to strengthen the intellectual cohesion of this scientific discipline. However, what intellectual development has not been able to achieve itself has been done almost unnoticed by social processes. The decisive factor

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

for the new phenomenon of homogenization of sociological theory, research and teaching has undoubtedly been the multidimensional process of globalization [1].

sociological writings on science in the system of world society is an approach which enables an explanation of the dynamics of the process of globalization of science. The lack of bisection in the discipline of sociology may be a reason that there is still a long way to go for sociology in the direction of becoming a globally oriented scientific discipline, and the path towards a

World Society: An Ice-Breaker for a Global Shift in Sociology?

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75048

5

In this chapter, social responsibility is understood as a worldwide endeavour. Therefore social responsibility here means *global social responsibility*. Social responsibility stands for an ethical framework that proposes an entity—be it an individual or an organization—that as such has an obligation to act for the benefit of society as a whole. Here the term of society is not equated with a nation-state, but the article discloses society in a worldwide frame of reference: word society so to speak. World society approaches refer immediately to a global reference frame. Furthermore they point to social responsibility beyond a nation-state or a world region: a

**2. World society: elementary breaks with traditional thinking styles** 

The formative idea of social science production in the nineteenth century was the discovery of 'society'. The twenty-first century is faced with the task of saying *farewell* to traditional ways of thinking, to all 'homeland theories of society' [10] and instead to reconsider the 'world reference' of the social [11] against the fixed idea of 'self-containedness', 'territorial enclosure' and 'boundedness' (of societies, states, cultures, and identities). This farewell to traditional thinking styles of sociology and reconsidering of the 'world reference' of the social, establishes an ad hoc connection to the concept of globality. This plays a role in many theoretical

The term of globality implicated three elementary fractions with the thinking styles of classical sociology as a new—and for all social relations relevant—*sense and operational framework*: firstly it caused the separation of class-structural systems and its classification systems through identity-political aspirations; secondly it caused — the globe and the global —an identification pattern that is contrary to national symbolism and rhetoric and is focussed on transnational structure formation taking the place of territorially defined value orientations and related ideas of enclosed spaces, historical resistance and social cohesion; and thirdly, it meant the rejection of *deterministic globalization narratives by profound sociological analysis*, which may reveal the specific embedding of culture and economy as well as technology in structures of social relations. World society as the sum of social relations is the result of his-

The scientific issue of whether and on which structural formations a world or global society is recognizable, is one that has to be answered by sociologists in the twenty-first century. While it is for Martin Albrow [13] a 'society beyond boundaries', other approaches in their theoretical programme, for example, aim for the concept of movement and state a 'sociology

*world sociology* will take some time to complete.

global social responsibility (of scientists) so to say.

conceptualizations of world society.

torical development [12].

**in sociology**

One of the most diverse and often unthinkingly used concepts of sociology in literature is that of society. The quasi self-evident equation of the state with the concept of society is found in many theoretical approaches and empirical studies of this scientific discipline. A sociological theory that accepts without reflection the assumptions of the surrounding social reality does not get beyond the description and interpretation of this environment. Another perspective becomes visible, if the reciprocal interdependence of the *local* and *global* is included in analyses. Referring to theories of world society, Klaus Seitz [2] notices that a profound world society theory should be able to reconstruct the emergence of global structures of local events and describe interactions between macro structures and occurrences in the social micro area.

Sociological theories that incorporate the *global* conceptually have to question the proven concept of progressive system of relevance and causal references systematically. 'State' and 'society', 'culture' and 'economy' have so far been valid as the quasi self-evident analytical concepts by means of which sociological knowledge of inclusion and exclusion, status and power distribution, poverty and social inequalities, norms and values, etc. are produced, and so these concepts even remain a problem to this day. This is because to recognize the *global* as the supreme system of relevance means nothing more than to create as a consequence an epistemological challenge; to analyse from now on inevitably all social phenomena in their *world reference* [3].

Sociology has gradually improved and deepened its theoretical basis in the course of history. At the same time, it has had to react to developments and thereby consider new theoretical statements. It makes a difference, if only national or even global perspectives have to be considered and are to be processed [4].

An outdated sociology, as discussed by Ulrich Beck [5] with the polemical accusations of the *zombie science of the national outlook* which thinks and researches in categories of international trade, international dialogue, national sovereignty, national communities, etc., is becoming the unreality science of a 'national sociology'. Just as national economy, national sociology is at the end of its tether. There is also a low level of *self-reflection* about to what extent the discipline is facing the challenges and opportunities of a continuously globalizing and already globalized social world. This is visible in particular in the use of the term society in sociological literature. Niklas Luhmann [6] states that despite the immense global relationships in modern society, sociology shows emphatic resistance when it comes to recognizing this global system as a society. Those authors that grant the modern state a central role in their social theory again do not recognize for this very reason the global system as a society. Such a focus is considered by Niklas Luhmann [7] as one of the *current knowledge blockages of the theory of society*.

Rudolf Stichweh [8] points to an interesting science-systematic indicator that in his view suggests that a regionalization of the concept of society cannot be thought of as consistent. Thus, there is for the discipline of political science the subject 'international politics' as opposed to 'political science' and for the discipline of economics the subject 'world economics' as opposed to 'national economy'; meanwhile, there has never been a comparable dichotomy in the history of sociology as a discipline. He [9] therefore argues that what is still missing in the sociological writings on science in the system of world society is an approach which enables an explanation of the dynamics of the process of globalization of science. The lack of bisection in the discipline of sociology may be a reason that there is still a long way to go for sociology in the direction of becoming a globally oriented scientific discipline, and the path towards a *world sociology* will take some time to complete.

for the new phenomenon of homogenization of sociological theory, research and teaching has

One of the most diverse and often unthinkingly used concepts of sociology in literature is that of society. The quasi self-evident equation of the state with the concept of society is found in many theoretical approaches and empirical studies of this scientific discipline. A sociological theory that accepts without reflection the assumptions of the surrounding social reality does not get beyond the description and interpretation of this environment. Another perspective becomes visible, if the reciprocal interdependence of the *local* and *global* is included in analyses. Referring to theories of world society, Klaus Seitz [2] notices that a profound world society theory should be able to reconstruct the emergence of global structures of local events and describe interactions between macro structures and occurrences in the social micro area. Sociological theories that incorporate the *global* conceptually have to question the proven concept of progressive system of relevance and causal references systematically. 'State' and 'society', 'culture' and 'economy' have so far been valid as the quasi self-evident analytical concepts by means of which sociological knowledge of inclusion and exclusion, status and power distribution, poverty and social inequalities, norms and values, etc. are produced, and so these concepts even remain a problem to this day. This is because to recognize the *global* as the supreme system of relevance means nothing more than to create as a consequence an epistemological challenge; to analyse from now on inevitably all social phenomena in their

Sociology has gradually improved and deepened its theoretical basis in the course of history. At the same time, it has had to react to developments and thereby consider new theoretical statements. It makes a difference, if only national or even global perspectives have to be con-

An outdated sociology, as discussed by Ulrich Beck [5] with the polemical accusations of the *zombie science of the national outlook* which thinks and researches in categories of international trade, international dialogue, national sovereignty, national communities, etc., is becoming the unreality science of a 'national sociology'. Just as national economy, national sociology is at the end of its tether. There is also a low level of *self-reflection* about to what extent the discipline is facing the challenges and opportunities of a continuously globalizing and already globalized social world. This is visible in particular in the use of the term society in sociological literature. Niklas Luhmann [6] states that despite the immense global relationships in modern society, sociology shows emphatic resistance when it comes to recognizing this global system as a society. Those authors that grant the modern state a central role in their social theory again do not recognize for this very reason the global system as a society. Such a focus is considered by Niklas Luhmann [7] as one of the *current knowledge blockages of the theory of society*. Rudolf Stichweh [8] points to an interesting science-systematic indicator that in his view suggests that a regionalization of the concept of society cannot be thought of as consistent. Thus, there is for the discipline of political science the subject 'international politics' as opposed to 'political science' and for the discipline of economics the subject 'world economics' as opposed to 'national economy'; meanwhile, there has never been a comparable dichotomy in the history of sociology as a discipline. He [9] therefore argues that what is still missing in the

undoubtedly been the multidimensional process of globalization [1].

*world reference* [3].

4 Social Responsibility

sidered and are to be processed [4].

In this chapter, social responsibility is understood as a worldwide endeavour. Therefore social responsibility here means *global social responsibility*. Social responsibility stands for an ethical framework that proposes an entity—be it an individual or an organization—that as such has an obligation to act for the benefit of society as a whole. Here the term of society is not equated with a nation-state, but the article discloses society in a worldwide frame of reference: word society so to speak. World society approaches refer immediately to a global reference frame. Furthermore they point to social responsibility beyond a nation-state or a world region: a global social responsibility (of scientists) so to say.
