1. Introduction

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of ionizing and nonionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation includes ultraviolet (UV) rays, X-rays, and gamma (ϒ) rays. Electromagnetic radiation

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

(EMR) from cellphone towers is largely comprised of high-frequency radio waves or microwaves. Microwaves lie in the nonionizing radiation portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which includes low-frequency (computers, power lines), medium-frequency (television, radio), and high-frequency (microwaves, mobile devices) radio waves (Figure 1).

such as cesium-137 are emitters of gamma radiation. Cesium is one of the radioactive fission products routinely produced by a nuclear reactor during its operation. However, following the Chernobyl event, forest food products in surrounding regions of Europe were found to contain the highest recorded levels of the radioisotope cesium-137. For example, high contamination of reindeer meat was reported in Scandinavia. Pollen data from forests in the Bavarian Alps also show that radiocesium uptake by mosses uniquely reference the Chernobyl incident [5].

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Previously, a local reduction in pollinators like bumblebees in the vicinity of Chernobyl has been linked to the production of fewer fruit and stunted fruit trees in highly radioactive areas. Moreover, a direct link has been established between radiation, pollinators, fruit abundance, and an abundance of frugivores such as fruit-eating seed dispersers [6]. Therefore, due to the observed reduction in wild birds and honey bees, it is possible that EMR may negatively impact fruit production, which is an important food crop, in areas of high cell tower concentration. It has already been reported that EMR from cell towers can affect the overall growth of agricultural crops and plants by reducing yield [2]. Since growing certain fruits rich in micronutrients may be beneficial in helping to prevent cancer, such a decline in crop yield could represent a significant loss for the agricultural industry as the demand for these phytochemicals like the polyphenols found in grape skin and grape seeds grows (resveratrol and

In addition to this indirect effect on human health, the potential for a direct effect of EMR on human health was investigated. The adverse health effects of EMR from cell base stations and other cellular infrastructure are certainly contentious. Epidemiological data are lacking in this area and, at times, it is contradictory. Exposure levels are often difficult to quantify due to background EMR including from cell phones, computers, Wi-Fi, microwave ovens, and other electronic household devices. However, there is some research that suggests a degree of caution should be exercised in the installation of such cell base stations. Moreover, substantial

Microwave sickness syndrome was first identified in the 1950s by Soviet medical researchers. Symptoms included headache, fatigue, ocular dysfunction, dizziness, and sleep disorders. Clinically, dermographism, tumors, blood changes, reproductive and cardiovascular abnormalities, depression, irritability, and memory impairment were reported. Although the syn-

Later American researchers found symptoms to include eczema, psoriasis, and allergic and inflammatory reactions in staff stationed at the US Embassy in Moscow, which the Soviet government irradiated secretly over a period of approximately 20 years. It is of interest that the power densities of the microwaves employed by the Soviets were comparable to modern cellphone base stations. They also observed neurological problems in males, reproductive problems in females, tumor increases (benign in men, malignant in women), hematological alterations, effects on mood and well-being, and eye problems. The average exposure time for

Despite these observed effects and other existing data, no satisfactory explanation for tumor formation based on classical experimental carcinogenesis models has been available so far.

drome is reversible in its early stages, it is considered to be lethal over time [8].

evidence relating to microwave radiation exposure exists.

each individual was between 2 and 4 years [9].

procyanidins) [7].

Radio-frequency radiation (RFR) is emitted at varying frequencies by cellphone towers, cell phones, computers, Wi-Fi, microwave ovens, and other electronic devices. RFR frequency ranges between 10 KHz and 300 GHz. On average, Wi-Fi applications and microwave ovens utilize 2450 MHz. Cellphone technology uses transmission signals between 800 MHz and 3 GHz, while cellphone towers typically operate at 1900 MHz [1].

The adverse biological effects of EMR from cellphone towers have been reported in frugivores such as potential fruit-eating seed dispersers (birds), insect pollinators (bees), and humans. A decline in sparrow populations and other wild birds has been observed in the vicinity of cellphone towers in India. EMR from similar sources has also been correlated with decreased egg production in honey bees. In fact, in India, the problem is perceived as being sufficiently serious that a panel of scientists has recommended regular auditing of EMR levels and that EMR be recognized as a pollutant. They have also suggested implementation of a special law to protect urban flora and fauna from its effects [2–4].

The significant radioisotopes released as a result of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor explosion were iodine-131, cesium-137, strontium-90, and plutonium-241. Some of these radioisotopes

Figure 1. National Cancer Institute – National Institute of Health; 2016.

such as cesium-137 are emitters of gamma radiation. Cesium is one of the radioactive fission products routinely produced by a nuclear reactor during its operation. However, following the Chernobyl event, forest food products in surrounding regions of Europe were found to contain the highest recorded levels of the radioisotope cesium-137. For example, high contamination of reindeer meat was reported in Scandinavia. Pollen data from forests in the Bavarian Alps also show that radiocesium uptake by mosses uniquely reference the Chernobyl incident [5].

(EMR) from cellphone towers is largely comprised of high-frequency radio waves or microwaves. Microwaves lie in the nonionizing radiation portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which includes low-frequency (computers, power lines), medium-frequency (television, radio),

Radio-frequency radiation (RFR) is emitted at varying frequencies by cellphone towers, cell phones, computers, Wi-Fi, microwave ovens, and other electronic devices. RFR frequency ranges between 10 KHz and 300 GHz. On average, Wi-Fi applications and microwave ovens utilize 2450 MHz. Cellphone technology uses transmission signals between 800 MHz and

The adverse biological effects of EMR from cellphone towers have been reported in frugivores such as potential fruit-eating seed dispersers (birds), insect pollinators (bees), and humans. A decline in sparrow populations and other wild birds has been observed in the vicinity of cellphone towers in India. EMR from similar sources has also been correlated with decreased egg production in honey bees. In fact, in India, the problem is perceived as being sufficiently serious that a panel of scientists has recommended regular auditing of EMR levels and that EMR be recognized as a pollutant. They have also suggested implementation of a special law

The significant radioisotopes released as a result of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor explosion were iodine-131, cesium-137, strontium-90, and plutonium-241. Some of these radioisotopes

and high-frequency (microwaves, mobile devices) radio waves (Figure 1).

3 GHz, while cellphone towers typically operate at 1900 MHz [1].

to protect urban flora and fauna from its effects [2–4].

138 Current Understanding of Apoptosis - Programmed Cell Death

Figure 1. National Cancer Institute – National Institute of Health; 2016.

Previously, a local reduction in pollinators like bumblebees in the vicinity of Chernobyl has been linked to the production of fewer fruit and stunted fruit trees in highly radioactive areas. Moreover, a direct link has been established between radiation, pollinators, fruit abundance, and an abundance of frugivores such as fruit-eating seed dispersers [6]. Therefore, due to the observed reduction in wild birds and honey bees, it is possible that EMR may negatively impact fruit production, which is an important food crop, in areas of high cell tower concentration. It has already been reported that EMR from cell towers can affect the overall growth of agricultural crops and plants by reducing yield [2]. Since growing certain fruits rich in micronutrients may be beneficial in helping to prevent cancer, such a decline in crop yield could represent a significant loss for the agricultural industry as the demand for these phytochemicals like the polyphenols found in grape skin and grape seeds grows (resveratrol and procyanidins) [7].

In addition to this indirect effect on human health, the potential for a direct effect of EMR on human health was investigated. The adverse health effects of EMR from cell base stations and other cellular infrastructure are certainly contentious. Epidemiological data are lacking in this area and, at times, it is contradictory. Exposure levels are often difficult to quantify due to background EMR including from cell phones, computers, Wi-Fi, microwave ovens, and other electronic household devices. However, there is some research that suggests a degree of caution should be exercised in the installation of such cell base stations. Moreover, substantial evidence relating to microwave radiation exposure exists.

Microwave sickness syndrome was first identified in the 1950s by Soviet medical researchers. Symptoms included headache, fatigue, ocular dysfunction, dizziness, and sleep disorders. Clinically, dermographism, tumors, blood changes, reproductive and cardiovascular abnormalities, depression, irritability, and memory impairment were reported. Although the syndrome is reversible in its early stages, it is considered to be lethal over time [8].

Later American researchers found symptoms to include eczema, psoriasis, and allergic and inflammatory reactions in staff stationed at the US Embassy in Moscow, which the Soviet government irradiated secretly over a period of approximately 20 years. It is of interest that the power densities of the microwaves employed by the Soviets were comparable to modern cellphone base stations. They also observed neurological problems in males, reproductive problems in females, tumor increases (benign in men, malignant in women), hematological alterations, effects on mood and well-being, and eye problems. The average exposure time for each individual was between 2 and 4 years [9].

Despite these observed effects and other existing data, no satisfactory explanation for tumor formation based on classical experimental carcinogenesis models has been available so far. Such traditional models rely heavily on DNA damage and the subsequent clonal expansion of mutated cells for their modality. In the past, it has been stated that no mechanism is known to cause cancer in the nonionizing radiation or radiofrequency radiation part of the electromagnetic spectrum since it does not damage DNA or cells directly like ionizing radiation [10]. Thus, it has been largely dismissed as a putative cause of cancer. However, recently, it has become apparent that the pathogenesis of cancer is closely connected with aberrantly regulated apoptotic cell death and the resulting deregulation of cell proliferation. A mechanism for gamma-radiation carcinogenesis based on an apoptotic model has already been proposed [11]. According to a new approach to cancer risk assessment, it was determined that EMR from cellphone towers may pose a cancer risk in humans since microwaves can stimulate p53-mediated caspase-3 activation and cell death in a human brain glioblastoma cell line [12] and Fas-induced and ERK-mediated apoptosis in human lymphocyte cell lines [13, 14].

in children regarding exposure to high-frequency radio waves, there are reports that cellphone radiation penetrates deeper into the head of children and that certain tissues of the head like the bone marrow and eye absorb more radiation than in adults [27–29]. Specific absorption rate (SAR) is the term used to describe the absorption of RFR in the body and represents the

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In vivo animal studies have demonstrated that potentially genotoxic effects in male Wistar rats following microwave exposure include the induction of micronuclei, an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which can trigger cellular apoptosis, and increases in various antioxidant enzyme activities like serum glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase [2]. Rats exposed to microwaves display a significant reduction in splenic activity of natural killer cells, which may help to provide host defense against the development of tumors [30]. Other cellphone radiation research in animals has shown that it doubles the cancer rate in mice [31]. Also, EMR from cellphones can increase mouse tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production, which is associated with a major apoptotic pathway [32]. Cellphone radiation increases the

In vitro, one very elegant set of comparative studies correlating results in human lymphocytes with Chinese hamster cells (V79) has suggested that microwave radiation can induce structural damage in mammalian chromosomal DNA. A significantly higher frequency of specific chromosome aberrations, such as dicentric and ring chromosomes, was observed in irradiated V79 cells than in control samples. Micronuclei were also present in the irradiated V79 cells [34]. Animal studies have demonstrated the neoplastic transformation of a clonal mouse embryo cell line (C3H/10 T1/2) following exposure to modulated microwaves [35]. In other more recent studies, neural cell apoptosis in NGF-differentiated PC12 rat cells has been induced by microwave exposure via the mitochondria-dependent caspase-3 pathway [36]. It represents one of three cellular apoptotic pathways including the extrinsic death receptor-dependent pathway, the intrinsic mitochondria-dependent pathway, and the intrinsic endoplasmic reticulum(ER)

Microwave irradiation can produce genotoxic effects in human cells [38]. Induction of micronuclei in human lymphocytes with wide interindividual variability after exposure in vitro to 1800 MHz [39] has been observed and is correlated with specific chromosomal aberrations (acentric fragments and dicentric chromosomes) [40]. Exposure of human peripheral blood lymphocytes to EMR associated with cell phones (830 MHz) leads to chromosomal instability, specifically aneuploidy, which is known to increase cancer risk [41]. Aneuploidy among other kinds of DNA

rate of energy absorbed by a unit of tissue.

embryonic mortality of chickens [33].

stress-mediated pathway [37].

4. Cell studies

3. Animal studies
