**Meet the editor**

Dr. Kırmusaoğlu is an Assistant Professor of Microbiology at the Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, T.C. Haliç University, where she had previously held an administrative position as vice head of the same department. She specialized in microbiology at Abant Izzet Baysal University (Biology Department), Turkey. Her previous experience includes the position of labora-

tory manager at microbiology laboratories in several research and private hospitals. Throughout her career, she collaborated with academicians/- researchers from AIBU, METU, and IU Cerrahpaşa Medical Faculty, and participated in various research projects. She also worked as a lecturer in the Medical Laboratory Techniques Program held at the Department of Medical Services and Techniques, T.C. Istanbul Kavram Vocational Training School before transitioning to T.C. Haliç University as an assistant professor. Dr. Kırmusaoğlu's research interests include pathogenic bacterial biofilms, antibiofilm and antimicrobial agents, and the effects and synergistic effects of new alternative agents such as chemical and natural bioactive compounds against pathogenic bacteria, such as antibiotic-resistant and biofilm-producing microorganisms. She is also interested in research on antibiofilm medical devices and food package design for preventing biofilm infections associated with indwelling devices that could lead to systemic infections, food-borne infections, and prolongation of foods' shelf life. She has published several international research articles, book chapters, and congress proceedings. More specifically, Dr. Kırmusaoğlu participated as an author in books entitled *Microbial Biofilms*: *Importance and Applications* and *Staphylococcus aureus* with her chapters "Staphylococcal Biofilms: Pathogenicity, Mechanism and Regulation of Biofilm Formation by Quorum Sensing System and Antibiotic Resistance Mechanisms of Biofilm Embedded Microorganisms" and "The Mechanism of Methicillin Resistance and the Influence of Methicillin Resistance on Biofilm Phenotype of Staphylococcus aureus". She is the editor of the book entitled *Bacterial Pathogenesis and Antibacterial Control* published by Intech. She is also the author and editor of the book entitled *Genel Biyoloji Laboratuvar Kılavuzu* (*General Biology Laboratory Manual*) published by Hipokrat Publisher. She has also been contributing to a book project entitled *Antimicrobials* as an editor, and has been contributing a chapter translation of the book entitled *Sherris Medical Microbiology* by Ryan et al. as one of the translation authors of *Sherris Medikal Mikrobiyoloji*, which will be a Turkish translated book.-

Contents

**Preface VII**

**Section 1 Overview to Disinfection 1**

Sahra Kırmusaoğlu

**Section 2 Disinfection of Water 7**

**Consumption 9**

**Adenovirus 35**

**By-Products 55** Milton Rosero-Moreano

**Section 4 Chemical Analysis of By-products 53**

**Section 3 Viral Disinfection 33**

Chapter 1 **Introductory Chapter: Overview of Disinfection 3**

Chapter 2 **Disinfection of Water Used for Human and Animal**

Chapter 3 **Carrier and Liquid Heat Inactivation of Poliovirus and**

Purgill, Raymond Nims and Donna Suchmann

Chapter 4 **New Trends in Chemical Analysis of Disinfection**

Papajová and Zuzana Bujdošová

Tatiana Hrušková, Naďa Sasáková, Gabriela Gregová, Ingrid

S. Steve Zhou, Cameron Wilde, Zheng Chen, Tanya Kapes, Jennifer

## Contents



**Section 1**

**Overview to Disinfection**

**Overview to Disinfection** 

**Chapter 1**

**Provisional chapter**

**Introductory Chapter: Overview of Disinfection**

**Introductory Chapter: Overview of Disinfection**

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.81051

Disinfection is the method to destroy most microbial forms, especially vegetative pathogens rather than bacterial spores, by using physical and chemical procedures such as UV radiation, boiling, vapor. Each surgical process and medical applications need sterile procedures to avoid infection of tissue by surgical and medical equipment that are contaminated. During these processes, surgical and medical equipment can be contaminated by pathogens via contaminated surgical gloves. This leads to entrance of bacteria adhered on surgical and medical equipment or devices to sterile tissues of patient as a result of infection. Not only contaminated surgical and medical equipment are risk factors for infection but also contaminated common areas used by community such as toilets, public transport vehicles and door handles and contaminated air causing transmission of pathogens from person to person and contaminated kitchen equipment causing cross contamination between equipment and foods are risk factors for health-threatening infections. Inadequate disinfections of these equipment and air are risk factors for transmission of pathogens to patients. Hepatitis B, hepatitis C*,* Rota virus*, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli* O157:H7*, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae, Vibrio cholera*, and *Helicobacter pylori* are the most common examples of pathogens transmitted. Failure to apply disinfection applications has been lead-

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

There are many guidelines for choosing and using proper disinfection and sterilization methods by effective disinfectants in distinct areas, and application of disinfection and sterilization

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

Sahra KırmusaoğluAdditional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81051

Sahra Kırmusaoğlu

**1. Introduction**

**1.1. Importance of disinfection**

ing to various outbreaks [1].

**2. Guidelines for disinfection applications**

## **Introductory Chapter: Overview of Disinfection**

## Sahra Kırmusaoğlu

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.81051

#### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1. Importance of disinfection**

Disinfection is the method to destroy most microbial forms, especially vegetative pathogens rather than bacterial spores, by using physical and chemical procedures such as UV radiation, boiling, vapor. Each surgical process and medical applications need sterile procedures to avoid infection of tissue by surgical and medical equipment that are contaminated. During these processes, surgical and medical equipment can be contaminated by pathogens via contaminated surgical gloves. This leads to entrance of bacteria adhered on surgical and medical equipment or devices to sterile tissues of patient as a result of infection. Not only contaminated surgical and medical equipment are risk factors for infection but also contaminated common areas used by community such as toilets, public transport vehicles and door handles and contaminated air causing transmission of pathogens from person to person and contaminated kitchen equipment causing cross contamination between equipment and foods are risk factors for health-threatening infections. Inadequate disinfections of these equipment and air are risk factors for transmission of pathogens to patients. Hepatitis B, hepatitis C*,* Rota virus*, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli* O157:H7*, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae, Vibrio cholera*, and *Helicobacter pylori* are the most common examples of pathogens transmitted. Failure to apply disinfection applications has been leading to various outbreaks [1].

## **2. Guidelines for disinfection applications**

There are many guidelines for choosing and using proper disinfection and sterilization methods by effective disinfectants in distinct areas, and application of disinfection and sterilization

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

methods in many countries, such as Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities that searched and used articles published in American Journal of Infection Control, Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, and Journal of Hospital Infection that are the three common journals for controlling infection was written by Rutala and Weber (2008 and updated in February 15, 2017) and published by CDC [1].

#### **3. Disinfectants**

Contaminated biotic surfaces such as skin, contaminated abiotic surfaces such as medical devices, and kitchen equipment exposed to cross contamination must be disinfected to prevent pathogens. Alcohols, chlorine and chlorine compounds, quaternary ammonium compounds, phenolics, iodophors, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, *ortho*-phthalaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid are examples of disinfectants used. Microbicide metals, ultraviolet radiation (UV), pasteurization were also used for disinfection of surfaces, as miscellaneous inactivating agents [1].

#### **4. Efficacy of disinfection-**

Bactericidal effects of disinfectants vary against each microorganism. According to efficacy of disinfectant, appropriate disinfectant must be used against each microorganism. For example, a few types of disinfectants are not suitable for cold, due to inefficacy of disinfectant at lower temperatures of environment. This problem can be overcome by selecting appropriate disinfectant of which effect is high in cold conditions [2, 3].

Temperature and pH of the disinfection process, amount of microorganism, physical factors such as surface type, chemical factors such as chemical composition of surface or disinfectant, antibacterial resistance of microorganism, biofilm production of microorganism, dose of disinfection, and duration of exposure to disinfection are the factors affecting efficacy of disinfectant against pathogens [1].

Susceptibilities of biofilm-embedded bacteria (sessile cells) and spores to disinfectants are lesser than planktonic and vegetative cells. It is hard to destroy bacterial biofilms, bacterial spores, and resistant microorganisms that can stay alive. Bacterial spores and resistant microorganisms can resist disinfectants. Studies showed that the effect of some disinfectants such as chlorhexidine, propamidine, and quaternary ammonium compound cetrimide against methicillin-sensitive *Staphylococcus aureus* (MSSA) was greater than that of methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* (MRSA) which is a life-threatening pathogen [4]. Researchers found that the susceptibility of gentamicin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* (*S. aureus*) isolates against propamidine, quaternary ammonium compounds, and ethidium bromide was lesser than gentamicin-susceptible *S. aureus* isolates [5]. Tennent et al. demonstrated that the susceptibility of staphylococci carrying *qac*A gene that encodes cytoplasmic membrane-associated protein which is a member of an efflux system was reduced against some disinfectants such as quaternary ammonium compounds [6].

In contrary to these studies, some other studies demonstrated that susceptibility of common antibiotic-resistant nosocomial isolates such as *Enterococcus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli*, *S. aureus*, and *Staphylococcus epidermidis* against disinfectants was the same as antibiotic-sensitive ones [7–10]. Other studies concluded that vancomycin-resistant *Enterococcus* (VRE) was eliminated by disinfectants [11].

Although biofilm-embedded bacteria are 10- to 1000-fold more resistant than planktonic ones [12], disinfectants such as chlorine and monochloramines eliminate biofilm-embedded bacteria [13–15].

#### **Author details**

Sahra Kırmusaoğlu-

Address all correspondence to: kirmusaoglu\_sahra@hotmail.com

Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Faculty of Arts and Science, T.C.-Halic University, Istanbul, Turkey

### **References**


**Disinfection of Water** 

**Chapter 2**

**Provisional chapter**

**Disinfection of Water Used for Human and Animal**

**Disinfection of Water Used for Human and Animal** 

This chapter deals with disinfection of water used for human and animal consumption. Water is the most abundant chemical component of the Earth and is very extensively used by mankind. Anthropogenic pressure on the environment leads to decrease in water quality. The quality of water is determined using the most important range of parameters (physical, chemical, and microbiological). This chapter discusses major pollutants of water, protection of water sources, micro-organisms causing the main waterborne diseases and methods of treatment, and disinfection of water. Different methods are used to disinfect drinking water. One of the most frequently used methods is disinfection with active chlorine, which is the only method providing continuous protection against microbial regrowth. However, this method has also some disadvantages (e.g., formation of trihalomethane and haloacetic acid precursors) linked to increased risk of cancer. It is important to remember that none of the products used to disinfect water is capable of ensuring complete safety of treated water if the water comes from unsuitable sources. **Keywords:** disinfection, chlorination, drinking water safety, farm animal watering,

Water is essential for the existence of life. It should be available to all at adequate quantity and quality. Access to safe drinking water is the basic requirement for ensuring good health of animals and humans, so every effort should be made to achieve this goal [1]. The safety of drinking water

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.76430

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**Consumption**

**Consumption**

Zuzana Bujdošová

**Abstract**

**1. Introduction**

Zuzana Bujdošová

Tatiana Hrušková, Naďa Sasáková, Gabriela Gregová, Ingrid Papajová and

Tatiana Hrušková, Naďa Sasáková, Gabriela Gregová, Ingrid Papajová and

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76430

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

microbiological examination, physico-chemical examination

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
