1. Introduction: the image of women and the fight for equality

After the end of World War II and the failure of the League of Nations, in 1945 the International Community gave its approval for the creation of the United Nations, an organisation established to ensure world peace and security. From the outset, this institution has insisted upon the importance of the communication media in development and cooperation between

> © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and eproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

nations. The first article of the Constitution of UNESCO, from 1945, states that the UN will always collaborate in the work of advancing the understanding of nations through the mass communication media, establishing such international agreements as may be necessary to promote the free flow of ideas and images.

Committee to the Conference during its third session, to call for a report on the role of the communication media. This last-minute attempt to 'pull in' the communication issue to the Conference agenda, whose parameters had actually long since been set, partly explains why the Conference did not finally come to grips in any serious way with the actual and potential

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The Platform for Action of Copenhagen stresses the importance of the communication industry in changing the stereotypical image of women and notes that priority must be given to

Later, the chapter on Development at the Nairobi Conference in 1985 states that measures need to be taken as necessary to eliminate stereotypes in the media and to fully incorporate women into society. The document encourages the creation of programmes and allocation of resources to support domestic campaigns aimed at informing the public about the need for equality

While the subject of women and communication media was discussed more thoroughly in Nairobi, it was at the Beijing Conference where the topic was truly addressed in-depth, giving it unprecedented importance. One of the critical areas of concern for the conference, contained in the "Beijing Platform for Action", was a section on women and communication media. This appendix, in addition to describing the situation in this sector and while admitting that significant changes have occurred, stresses that there is still a lot to be done. The document emphasises two strategic objectives. The first of these refers to the access of women to decisionmaking in the media and new communication technologies. The second refers to promoting a balanced and non-stereotyped image of women in the media. Under each of the objectives, certain actions are established, to be taken by governments, national and international media systems, the communication media, non-governmental organisations and the private sector to promote an active role by women. Some of the objectives proposed at this conference were encouraging the media to refrain from presenting women as inferior beings, sexual objects and commodities, removing sexist stereotypes from the media, taking measures against pornography and images of violence against women and girls and portraying an image of women as

These measures established to improve the image of women have not led to significant changes in marketing, and social stereotypes that do not benefit equality are still found in this area. While this subject has been of great interest to scholars and professionals who study the topic, with the first papers discussing gender differences in marketing [4] and the differing gender roles in advertising [5] published back in 1947, the fact is that this research has not had

In the advertising industry, sexist biases continue to be broadcasted, portraying a demeaning image of women, using them as a constant lure to sell and seduce male consumers. In turn, the projection of negative, degrading images of women in the communication media does not help foster or promote equality [6]. To the contrary, we might assert that this media stance is fostering and projecting a patriarchal, sexist society instead of paving the way for an egalitar-

role of communication media in the development of women's status" [3].

women's participation in taking decisions about communication.

between women and men [3].

actors and beneficiaries of development.

a noticeable impact in this field up to now.

ian society.

The freedom of information is a topic that has been present in many of the covenants and agreements drawn up by the United Nations. Thus, in article 19 of the Declaration of Human Rights (1948), as well as in articles 18–20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) and article 2 of the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, the subject of the freedom of information is mentioned as a fundamental, necessary, principle for the promotion of peace and understanding amongst human beings [1].

Three years after the United Nations was created, a conference on the freedom of information was held in Geneva. Based on this meeting, the rights, obligations and practices to be included within the concept of freedom of information were declared. This text places special emphasis on the fact that the free exchange of information and opinions is essential to the purposes of democracy and peace and for political, social, cultural and economic progress. To accomplish these aims, the media must be free from any kind of pressure, in virtue of its power to influence public opinion. This document stresses the significant responsibility that the media has towards the world and its duty to respect the truth and to promote understanding amongst all nations.

The UNESCO has endeavoured to foster, support and protect the work of the media and the professionals in this sector by creating covenants and agreements that benefit this commendable work. These conventions also aim to protect every human being's right to information while also stipulating certain obligations that all new organisations must fulfil.

However, in the early years of development of the United Nations, there are no serious references to women's status in the media or the impact that the media had on the image of women in the world. It was not until the Conference in Mexico that this subject was specifically addressed for the first time. The World Plan of Action from the meeting in Mexico recognised the importance of communication and information in improving women's status. Paragraphs 83 to 91 establish measures regarding education and the spread of information. These include a special emphasis on the sexist way in which women are portrayed, focusing on the importance of active participation by women in decision-making within the media. Finally, it is pointed out that there is a need to create educational programmes to eradicate the prejudices that restrict women's participation in society [2].

In 1980 in Copenhagen, emphasis was once again placed on this issue. However, it must be pointed out that in the questionnaire sent to the governments to assess the implementation of the Plan of Action of Mexico, no information was requested about the media, which leads to the conclusion that this was not a priority issue for the UN at that time. In fact, as noted in A Report on Action and Research Programmes, 1980–1985: "Yet it was not until three months before the Copenhagen Conference was to begin that a decision was taken, by the Preparatory Committee to the Conference during its third session, to call for a report on the role of the communication media. This last-minute attempt to 'pull in' the communication issue to the Conference agenda, whose parameters had actually long since been set, partly explains why the Conference did not finally come to grips in any serious way with the actual and potential role of communication media in the development of women's status" [3].

nations. The first article of the Constitution of UNESCO, from 1945, states that the UN will always collaborate in the work of advancing the understanding of nations through the mass communication media, establishing such international agreements as may be necessary to

The freedom of information is a topic that has been present in many of the covenants and agreements drawn up by the United Nations. Thus, in article 19 of the Declaration of Human Rights (1948), as well as in articles 18–20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) and article 2 of the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, the subject of the freedom of information is mentioned as a fundamental, necessary, principle for the promotion of peace and understand-

Three years after the United Nations was created, a conference on the freedom of information was held in Geneva. Based on this meeting, the rights, obligations and practices to be included within the concept of freedom of information were declared. This text places special emphasis on the fact that the free exchange of information and opinions is essential to the purposes of democracy and peace and for political, social, cultural and economic progress. To accomplish these aims, the media must be free from any kind of pressure, in virtue of its power to influence public opinion. This document stresses the significant responsibility that the media has towards the world and its duty to respect the truth and to promote understanding

The UNESCO has endeavoured to foster, support and protect the work of the media and the professionals in this sector by creating covenants and agreements that benefit this commendable work. These conventions also aim to protect every human being's right to information

However, in the early years of development of the United Nations, there are no serious references to women's status in the media or the impact that the media had on the image of women in the world. It was not until the Conference in Mexico that this subject was specifically addressed for the first time. The World Plan of Action from the meeting in Mexico recognised the importance of communication and information in improving women's status. Paragraphs 83 to 91 establish measures regarding education and the spread of information. These include a special emphasis on the sexist way in which women are portrayed, focusing on the importance of active participation by women in decision-making within the media. Finally, it is pointed out that there is a need to create educational programmes to eradicate the prejudices

In 1980 in Copenhagen, emphasis was once again placed on this issue. However, it must be pointed out that in the questionnaire sent to the governments to assess the implementation of the Plan of Action of Mexico, no information was requested about the media, which leads to the conclusion that this was not a priority issue for the UN at that time. In fact, as noted in A Report on Action and Research Programmes, 1980–1985: "Yet it was not until three months before the Copenhagen Conference was to begin that a decision was taken, by the Preparatory

while also stipulating certain obligations that all new organisations must fulfil.

that restrict women's participation in society [2].

promote the free flow of ideas and images.

ing amongst human beings [1].

80 Marketing

amongst all nations.

The Platform for Action of Copenhagen stresses the importance of the communication industry in changing the stereotypical image of women and notes that priority must be given to women's participation in taking decisions about communication.

Later, the chapter on Development at the Nairobi Conference in 1985 states that measures need to be taken as necessary to eliminate stereotypes in the media and to fully incorporate women into society. The document encourages the creation of programmes and allocation of resources to support domestic campaigns aimed at informing the public about the need for equality between women and men [3].

While the subject of women and communication media was discussed more thoroughly in Nairobi, it was at the Beijing Conference where the topic was truly addressed in-depth, giving it unprecedented importance. One of the critical areas of concern for the conference, contained in the "Beijing Platform for Action", was a section on women and communication media. This appendix, in addition to describing the situation in this sector and while admitting that significant changes have occurred, stresses that there is still a lot to be done. The document emphasises two strategic objectives. The first of these refers to the access of women to decisionmaking in the media and new communication technologies. The second refers to promoting a balanced and non-stereotyped image of women in the media. Under each of the objectives, certain actions are established, to be taken by governments, national and international media systems, the communication media, non-governmental organisations and the private sector to promote an active role by women. Some of the objectives proposed at this conference were encouraging the media to refrain from presenting women as inferior beings, sexual objects and commodities, removing sexist stereotypes from the media, taking measures against pornography and images of violence against women and girls and portraying an image of women as actors and beneficiaries of development.

These measures established to improve the image of women have not led to significant changes in marketing, and social stereotypes that do not benefit equality are still found in this area. While this subject has been of great interest to scholars and professionals who study the topic, with the first papers discussing gender differences in marketing [4] and the differing gender roles in advertising [5] published back in 1947, the fact is that this research has not had a noticeable impact in this field up to now.

In the advertising industry, sexist biases continue to be broadcasted, portraying a demeaning image of women, using them as a constant lure to sell and seduce male consumers. In turn, the projection of negative, degrading images of women in the communication media does not help foster or promote equality [6]. To the contrary, we might assert that this media stance is fostering and projecting a patriarchal, sexist society instead of paving the way for an egalitarian society.

Although the UN's work, as evidenced throughout this chapter, has been commendable and entailed an incessant fight for equality between women and men, it is also true that, as we have just seen, this international organisation, in its origins, did not feature an attempt to change the image of women in the media or to launch marketing campaigns to mobilise public opinion in order to promote this equality. The United Nations has undeniably bolstered these campaigns, which have increased over the course of the years and left their mark on society, but just as the fight for the establishment of legal and institutional measures has been part of this organisation's work, the "sales campaign" for them has not been as productive as might have been expected; women were still forced into the background, and their image in the world remained that of the weaker sex that needed protection and care.

During the course of 1966, two International Human Rights Covenants applicable to both men and women were approved. These were the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. These covenants bolstered the Universal Declaration by developing the rights contained therein, turning them into legal obligations for the governments of the countries that ratified or acceded to them. There is a greater emphasis on the principle of equality between men and women in these two International Covenants than there is in the Declaration of Human Rights. While gender-based discrimination is mentioned in the Declaration of Human Rights as one of several types of distinctions, such as race or religion, in the International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, an entire article is devoted to stressing that men and women are equally entitled to these rights. Amongst the rights proclaimed in the first of these covenants, some highlights are the right to marriage above a minimum age, consent by husband and wife and equal rights and responsibilities by both spouses in relation to the marriage, within marriage and in the event of dissolution thereof. The right to vote and to hold public office established in the 1951 Convention on the Political Rights of Women was

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The United Nations gradually recognised and expanded the rights of women in the civil, political, economic, educational and labour arenas. The status of women was seen essentially as a legal concern by the UN in its early years. The demands were mainly related to access to education, health services, food, work in decent health and wage conditions, etc. [9]. However, during this first period, the UN failed to consider the causes of the inequality that half the population continued to bear merely because they were women. At that time, their marginalisation in decision-making, lack of power and the established roles for men and women did not

In all fairness, we must mention that some early displays of a different perception of the feminine issue were also seen during this first period, in which women were no longer passive beneficiaries of development or vulnerable individuals with rights to be protected, to become actors in the economic and social development of the nations [10]. Starting in the late 1960s, the international community began to make the substantial change that would be seen in its strategy on issues related to promotion of women, based on their integration in the development processes.

3. United Nations decade for the advancement of women (1970–1995)

1975 marked a turning point in the promotion of equality between men and women as the year chosen by the United Nations to be International Women's Year and, at the same time, the first World Conference on Women took place in Mexico, which assessed and reflected on the activity that the UN had carried out up to that time in terms of the promotion of women, the results of which were not very satisfactory. The organisation itself was forced to acknowledge that its mainly legal activity had not achieved much in terms of improving women's status in

also reiterated.

3.1. Mexico 1975

the world.

find their way into the agenda of the United Nations.
