**3. Conclusions**

to suggest that recovery occurs relatively quickly, with mangroves being the exception as it is suggested that they may never fully recover once the integrity of the habitat is destroyed.

There are many environmentally perturbing threats both natural and human that can limit the ecosystem services provided by marine coastal zone assemblages (**Table 9**). There are new research areas that focus on different regions and habitats, and more large scale methods are beginning to allow a picture of ecosystem services and the complex ways these

**Mechanisms of impact Potentially heightened by an** 

**environmentally perturbing event**

Yes—reach the oceans either directly (because the pollutants originate in coastal area), or indirectly through river systems or the atmosphere. In some cases they are released as a result of ocean

Yes—more pronounced in bays and other enclosed or semi-enclosed waters

Yes—more significant adjacent to urban

Yes—often as the result of loading and blooms and die offs as the result of agriculture or development

Yes—particularly in the case of facilities begin breached by earthquake activity

Yes—marine nutrient imbalances as well as degeneration of the natural resilience or cleansing ability of marine ecosystems

Yes—but perhaps in a positive manner if the event increases awareness and

Yes—a potential for introduction of previously un established species that have the potential to effect the biotic

understanding

Yes—but localized

balance

dumping

areas

macroinvertebrate assemblages provide them [21, 42, 44, 46–51].

tin compounds, organophosphates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, synthetic detergents, and

to a deterioration in the natural cleansing power

Either direct dumping or indirect introduction of

depletion of key nutrients and the indirect impact to

Above-ground nuclear tests conducted in years past constitute the principal source of such pollutants. Nuclear-powered ships, discharges by land-based nuclear facilities, and ocean dumping (including illegal dumping) are major sources of marine

biotic interaction and their role is goods and services such as assuring human populations opportunities

Toxic substances Organochlorine compounds, heavy metals, organic

Organic pollution Excessive input of organic water and/or nutrients, or

Nutrient depletion Over development and urbanization which results in

radioactive contamination

Public awareness Lack of understanding of the aquatic habitats and

Biotic disruptions Many non-native wildlife species have penetrated

Thermal pollution Heat energy discharged by power plants or factory

(warm wastewater)

water

decreased productivity and/or fertility

Land reclamation operations, embankment reinforcement projects, and other physical alterations to shallow-water environments have directly as well as indirectly contributed to the loss of seaweed beds, tidal marshes, coral reefs, mangrove forests

for closer contact with the natural world

marine ecosystems simply because they were attached to ship hulls or concealed in ship ballast

cooling water, or by urban wastewater effluent

surfactants

waste materials

**Identified threats to coastal marine macro-invertebrate communities**

74 Ecosystem Services and Global Ecology

Introduction of debris

Radioactive contamination

Depletion of resources vital to preservation

Limiting the human environmental changes to the coastlines from the decision-making perspective are one significant way that the ecosystem services of the marine coastal zone macroinvertebrate and associated macro-flora can be sustained. The macroinvertebrate biodiversity of these areas is resilient overall but the basis for the ecological assemblages, either the physical aspects or the biotic bases, must be able to provide the structure needs for refuge or attachment to support them. Additional challenges in considering the ecosystem services provided by macroinvertebrate assemblages in marine coastal zones resides in the policy makers, the planning decisions, coastal development, and most importantly of building consensus around ecosystem services in a locality. Research is needed that explores the application of a consensus approach across different land and seascape units. Assessment of the coastal zone biota still requires much research and practical work; finding ways to incorporate ecosystem services and its myriad values into the work of planners and policy makers in the marine and coastal environment is as important as it is challenging (**Table 9**) [8].

Further scientific and societal endeavors are needed to identify ecosystem services in a locality and to then identify effects to ecosystem services provided by the macroinvertebrate assemblages specifically. Globally a picture of services and negative impacts on the services provided are identified in general. Specific impacts for categories of macroinvertebrate assemblages are lesser known, even as the body of research grows (**Table 3**). To maintain the ecosystem services provided by marine coastal zones macroinvertebrate assemblages (Provisioning, Supporting, Regulating, and those relating to Cultural Services) will `require an understanding and collaborative approach among researchers, planners, and those that ultimately rely on these services. Ultimately, more research is needed to identify which actions can be taken to lessen the loss and speed the recovery of these communities after large-scale events originating from both natural and human impacts to restore these important human related ecosystem services. The most significant gains could be made in determining further what recovery after an event is possible can be made in the different biotic assemblages, and what methods to safeguard against human impact can be possible.
