**2.5. The effect of clay mineral nanoparticles on the growth performance of internal organs and blood biochemistry of chickens compared to vaccines and antibiotics**

eco-friendly cationic clay [46], which is commonly used in many pharmaceutical formulations as an active and additive substance [47]. In addition, anionic nanoparticles of LDH in carbonate form are used as an antacid agent (antipepsin) to neutralize gastric acid, which is related to its alkaline properties under physiological pH [48]. The results show that LDH has a lower toxicity compared to single-walled carbon nanotubes and iron oxide and silica nanoparticles.

As previously described, clay nanoparticles are biocompatible materials with a high internal space, a high ion exchange capacity, and a low toxicity that these properties make them ideal for the bioactive compound delivery systems. The nanoclay encapsulation system can be prepared in a relatively simple and inexpensive process compared to other delivery systems. In addition to improving the solubility of the drug or active compounds, the nanoparticle encapsulation system has been considered for oral applications due to its high adhesion properties that are useful for molecules against GI barriers [49]. Choi's research team reports an easy way of encapsulating the strongest antioxidant by MMT with cation exchange reaction (**Figure 3(A)**) [50]. γ-L-glutamyl-L-cysteinylglycine (GSH) is a cellular antioxidant protector (preserver) against reactive oxygen species by neutralizing free radicals. GSH stability can be increased by encapsulating GHS on MMT. The tested GSH-MMT on mice resulted in a significant increase in the bioavailability and high activity of antioxidants in the plasma

**2.4. Clay nanoparticles for nutrient delivery systems**

**Figure 2.** (A) Double-layer hydroxide and (B) cationic clay (MMT) [1].

170 Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications

(**Figure 3(B)**).

Al-Beitawi et al. [51] investigated the effect of three levels of nanoclay minerals (1, 1.5, and 2%) on the growth performance of internal organs and blood biochemistry of chickens compared to vaccines and antibiotics. The experiment was conducted in nine diets for more than 36 days [51]. Groups 1–3 were fed with diet without clay mineral nanoparticles, and group C1 (positive with vaccines and antibiotics), C2 (positive only with vaccine), and C3 negative and without any of them (as control group). Treating groups with a similar diet to the levels mentioned earlier were done once or twice in a week. Performance of chickens, which fed with 2% clay nanoparticles, significantly improved in terms of body weight and feed conversion rates compared to control groups. With regard to blood biochemistry, high-density lipoprotein that is beneficial to the body was increased. Current results indicate that the mineral clay nanoparticles at certain levels and doses improve the performance of chickens. Nanotechnology is considered as a new potential tool for improving broiler chickens. Researchers believe that the beneficial and positive effects of the use of mineral clay nanoparticles as an additive to the diet of broiler chicks may be due to several factors such as the concentration, dose, and nature of nanoparticles [51]. Desai et al. observed that a nano-supplement form would increase the surface area, which may also increase the absorption and consequently the use of minerals [52]. In addition, Weiss et al. reported that the size of nanoparticles may increase the function or bioavailability of nutrients and compounds [53]. Mushtaq et al. reported that Na+ is the main cation of extracellular fluids involved in several functions including acid-base balance and amino acid absorption and glucose utilization that is beneficial for body growth, which may have a significant improvement in the growth performance of broiler chickens. On the other hand, the interest in using nanotechnology as a new tool in feeding broiler chicks shows that nanoparticles have very different physical and chemical properties from large particles [54]. In 2013, Sawors et al. suggested that the number of muscle cells returns to genetic, environmental, and nutritional factors [55]. On the other hand, creating more accessible mineral resources, such as clay nanoparticles, can have positive effects on tissue development. According to the obtained results, it can be concluded that the mineral clay nanoparticles have a favorable effect on total serum protein and its cleft [51]. Nanoparticles have been reported to exhibit several new characteristics of transfer and absorption and also have more effective absorption. The researchers suggested that the superior performance of clay nanoparticles may be due to smaller size and larger surfaces that improve intestinal absorption [56].
