**Meet the editor**

Sajal Ray received his MSc and MPhil degrees from the Calcutta University in Zoology and Environmental Science, respectively, and his PhD degree from the Jadavpur University. His thesis reports immunotoxicity of pesticide in an economically important snail of India. As an awardee of Fogarty Visiting Fellowship, Dr. Ray carried out his postdoctoral research in Cardiac Pathol-

ogy at the National Institutes of Health, USA. His research interest is studying immunological responses of mollusc, sponge, crab and earthworms exposed to pollutants. His team is engaged in understanding the evolutionary mechanism of immunity in phylogeny. He presented his research in conferences including World Congress of Malacology, Washington, DC. He is a Professor of Zoology at the Calcutta University and teaches Zoology for nearly 30 years at the postgraduate level.

Contents

**Preface VII**

**Engineers of Soil 3**

**Campeche, Mexico 9**

Chapter 1 **Introductory Chapter: Earthworms - The Ecological**

Chapter 2 **Abundance and Diversity of Earthworms in Managed and Non-Managed Fallow Lands of Calakmul Reserve of**

Chapter 3 **Earthworms and Nematodes: The Ecological and Functional**

Chapter 4 **Exploration of Earthworms of India through Online**

Samrendra Singh Thakur and Shweta Yadav

Jair Alves Dionísio, Wilian Carlo Demetrio and Arlei Maceda

Esperanza Huerta Lwanga, Lucero Sánchez-del Cid, Ligia Esparza-Olguín, Eduardo Martinez-Romero, Ben de Jong and Susana

**Section 1 Introduction 1**

Sajal Ray

**Section 2 Ecology and Diversity 7**

Ochoa-Gaona

**Interactions 17**

**Digital Library 33**

Jorge Domínguez

Chapter 5 **Earthworms and Vermicomposting 63**

**Section 3 Vermicomposting 61**

## Contents

**Preface XI**

	- Ochoa-Gaona

#### Chapter 6 **Environmental Influence of Soil toward Effective Vermicomposting 79**

Jaswinder Singh, Sharanpreet Singh, Adarsh Pal Vig and Arvinder Kaur

Preface

logical status of earthworms.

Earthworms are an important biotic component of agricultural soil. They bear an immense significance in its agricultural and ecological processes. Their relative abundance and gener‐ al physiological status serve as indicators of the health of various types of soils. These oligo‐ chaete annelids are effectively utilized in vermicomposting technology throughout the world. They greatly influence the fertility, porosity and other characteristics of agricultural soil. Their maneuvering potential of soil characters earned their name and fame as "ecologi‐ cal engineers". These moist-bodied tubular organisms greatly influence the characteristics of soil by effective composting and controlling its microbial and physicochemical features. Currently, the alarming level of contamination of soil by chemical toxins has been indicated as a serious ecotoxicological threat for both soil and its inhabitants. Intimate association of earthworms with contaminated soil renders these species to be the victims of acute physio‐ logical stress and early mortality. Pesticides, heavy metals, nanotoxins, pharmaceutical wastes and other emerging toxins of soil affect these worms both at organismal and molecu‐ lar levels. Toxin-induced shift of genetic and immunological makeup of earthworm has been identified as another biological risk which demands a special scientific attention. Toxin-in‐ duced alteration of physicochemical profile of soil might affect the microbial environment which, according to some workers, may act as an influencing factor of the general immuno‐

However, these engineers of soil not only influence the soil properties, they also affect the chance of resource availability to other organisms. According to the engineering activity, they are broadly classified as extended phenotype and accidental engineers. Both of these types generate "ecological hot spots", a unique microbial environment characteristic to a special soil type. Extended phenotype engineers exhibit a high potential to generate ecologi‐ cal heterogeneity due to their site-specific activity. On the other hand, the mobile accidental engineers are involved in uniform distribution of soil resource within a broad range of soil. These two nonsimilar strategies of ecosystem engineering help the ecologists and system bi‐ ologists to understand the role of individual species in ecosystem functioning in a better way. Physiological response of earthworm toward environmental stressors and toxins has been of interest to many scientific workers. Coelomocyte-mediated immunological reactivity has been established as a marker of soil contamination. Thus, they are often considered as an effective tool to monitor the physicochemical quality of soil. For the last two decades, a para‐ digm shift in earthworm research has been observed in the areas of ecological engineering, molecular biology and immunology. Scientists had reported immunological and proteomebased monitoring methods of various contaminants of soil ecosystem using earthworm as sentinel species. This important soil invertebrate, in recent years gained a special focus for its importance in agroecology, biomonitoring and biotechnology. Vermicomposting has

## Preface

Chapter 6 **Environmental Influence of Soil toward Effective**

Jaswinder Singh, Sharanpreet Singh, Adarsh Pal Vig and Arvinder

**Vermicomposting 79**

Kaur

**VI** Contents

Earthworms are an important biotic component of agricultural soil. They bear an immense significance in its agricultural and ecological processes. Their relative abundance and gener‐ al physiological status serve as indicators of the health of various types of soils. These oligo‐ chaete annelids are effectively utilized in vermicomposting technology throughout the world. They greatly influence the fertility, porosity and other characteristics of agricultural soil. Their maneuvering potential of soil characters earned their name and fame as "ecologi‐ cal engineers". These moist-bodied tubular organisms greatly influence the characteristics of soil by effective composting and controlling its microbial and physicochemical features. Currently, the alarming level of contamination of soil by chemical toxins has been indicated as a serious ecotoxicological threat for both soil and its inhabitants. Intimate association of earthworms with contaminated soil renders these species to be the victims of acute physio‐ logical stress and early mortality. Pesticides, heavy metals, nanotoxins, pharmaceutical wastes and other emerging toxins of soil affect these worms both at organismal and molecu‐ lar levels. Toxin-induced shift of genetic and immunological makeup of earthworm has been identified as another biological risk which demands a special scientific attention. Toxin-in‐ duced alteration of physicochemical profile of soil might affect the microbial environment which, according to some workers, may act as an influencing factor of the general immuno‐ logical status of earthworms.

However, these engineers of soil not only influence the soil properties, they also affect the chance of resource availability to other organisms. According to the engineering activity, they are broadly classified as extended phenotype and accidental engineers. Both of these types generate "ecological hot spots", a unique microbial environment characteristic to a special soil type. Extended phenotype engineers exhibit a high potential to generate ecologi‐ cal heterogeneity due to their site-specific activity. On the other hand, the mobile accidental engineers are involved in uniform distribution of soil resource within a broad range of soil. These two nonsimilar strategies of ecosystem engineering help the ecologists and system bi‐ ologists to understand the role of individual species in ecosystem functioning in a better way. Physiological response of earthworm toward environmental stressors and toxins has been of interest to many scientific workers. Coelomocyte-mediated immunological reactivity has been established as a marker of soil contamination. Thus, they are often considered as an effective tool to monitor the physicochemical quality of soil. For the last two decades, a para‐ digm shift in earthworm research has been observed in the areas of ecological engineering, molecular biology and immunology. Scientists had reported immunological and proteomebased monitoring methods of various contaminants of soil ecosystem using earthworm as sentinel species. This important soil invertebrate, in recent years gained a special focus for its importance in agroecology, biomonitoring and biotechnology. Vermicomposting has

been advocated as a major alternative for sustainable and biosafe agriculture across the globe. Interestingly, not all species of earthworms are equally efficient in composting wastes and thus are subjected to microbial and genetic screening in a controlled environment. Ex‐ ploration and inventorization of the diversity of earthworm have been identified as chal‐ lenging fields of research. Newer sets of taxonomical, ecological and physiological information have been continuously enriching one existing knowledge base on this group. Scientists identified the scope of genetic improvisation of earthworm for a better composting potential in selected species. With the introduction of various species of nanotoxins and chemical compounds into the global environment, the earthworm and other infaunas of soil ecosystem have been encountering the threat of extinction. This problem is presumed to be aggravated in the future under the backdrop of climate change.

to provide new directions of research to the scientific workers investigating on different dis‐

In the end, I sincerely acknowledge Ms. Ivana Glavic from IntechOpen for her cooperation in every step of editing this book. I remain thankful to my doctoral students Santanu Das, Abhishek Ray and Arunodaya Gautam for their technical assistance. My special thanks go to my wife and research colleague Dr. Mitali Ray for her academic assistance and encour‐ agement. Shubhalakshmi, Bishnupriya and Arka are always my sources of inspiration.

**Sajal Ray**

Preface IX

Department of Zoology University of Calcutta, India

ciplines of earthworm biology.

This edited volume comprises research and review articles representing the current trend of research in biology and ecology of earthworm and vermicomposting. General health and abundance of earthworm are often correlated with the level of soil fertility.

The first section "Introduction" contains the Introductory chapter which describes history between humans and earthworm.

In section entitled "Ecology and Diversity", the ecological and geographical uniqueness of distribution of earthworms was reported in the landscapes of Siberia. A long-term observa‐ tion was used to construct schematic maps in exhibiting quantitative variations of earth‐ worm in landscape and regional ranges. The effect of climate aridity was reported to be an influencing factor of species number. Abundance and diversity of earthworm in managed and nonmanaged fallow lands were reported in Calakmul Reserve of Mexico. Calakmul re‐ serve is a well-preserved rain forest where fallow land management was introduced. Earth‐ worm's density and richness were recorded to be correlated with the age of the fallow land. The type of fallow land was assumed to affect the biomass of earthworm in this reserve. Functional interaction of earthworm with soil nematodes was reviewed under the backdrop of ecological variation. Phytonematodes often cause substantial damage of the crops in vari‐ ous ecological conditions. According to the authors, earthworm may be considered as a bio‐ logical agent to reduce the extent of plant damage caused by selected species of nematodes. A novel approach of biodiversity inventorization of earthworm was discussed from taxo‐ nomical point of view. Development of online database may supplement the traditional method of morphotaxonomy of earthworm. This new approach of identification and conser‐ vation is expected to fill up some important lacunae of our present-day understanding of the diversity of oligochaetes. In the section entitled "Vermicomposting", the authors discussed the principle of vermicomposting. They pointed out the academic confusion and controver‐ sy which centre on the identity and biology of potential composting species. Importance of "pure culture" and the method of cultivation of earthworm of high composting efficiency were highlighted. Temperature, moisture content and physicochemical properties of feed mixtures influence the growth rate, maturity, reproduction rate and population size of earthworm during vermicomposting. In this section, the authors reported the influence of several physicochemical parameters on the general vermicomposting process. They also re‐ ported the differential responses of many species of earthworms toward selected parameters of soil. This book reports the basic and applied aspects of ecology and biology of earth‐ worms with an emphasis on vermicomposting. The paradigm shift that occurred in the field of research during the last two decades has been reflected in this book. This title is expected to provide new directions of research to the scientific workers investigating on different dis‐ ciplines of earthworm biology.

been advocated as a major alternative for sustainable and biosafe agriculture across the globe. Interestingly, not all species of earthworms are equally efficient in composting wastes and thus are subjected to microbial and genetic screening in a controlled environment. Ex‐ ploration and inventorization of the diversity of earthworm have been identified as chal‐ lenging fields of research. Newer sets of taxonomical, ecological and physiological information have been continuously enriching one existing knowledge base on this group. Scientists identified the scope of genetic improvisation of earthworm for a better composting potential in selected species. With the introduction of various species of nanotoxins and chemical compounds into the global environment, the earthworm and other infaunas of soil ecosystem have been encountering the threat of extinction. This problem is presumed to be

This edited volume comprises research and review articles representing the current trend of research in biology and ecology of earthworm and vermicomposting. General health and

The first section "Introduction" contains the Introductory chapter which describes history

In section entitled "Ecology and Diversity", the ecological and geographical uniqueness of distribution of earthworms was reported in the landscapes of Siberia. A long-term observa‐ tion was used to construct schematic maps in exhibiting quantitative variations of earth‐ worm in landscape and regional ranges. The effect of climate aridity was reported to be an influencing factor of species number. Abundance and diversity of earthworm in managed and nonmanaged fallow lands were reported in Calakmul Reserve of Mexico. Calakmul re‐ serve is a well-preserved rain forest where fallow land management was introduced. Earth‐ worm's density and richness were recorded to be correlated with the age of the fallow land. The type of fallow land was assumed to affect the biomass of earthworm in this reserve. Functional interaction of earthworm with soil nematodes was reviewed under the backdrop of ecological variation. Phytonematodes often cause substantial damage of the crops in vari‐ ous ecological conditions. According to the authors, earthworm may be considered as a bio‐ logical agent to reduce the extent of plant damage caused by selected species of nematodes. A novel approach of biodiversity inventorization of earthworm was discussed from taxo‐ nomical point of view. Development of online database may supplement the traditional method of morphotaxonomy of earthworm. This new approach of identification and conser‐ vation is expected to fill up some important lacunae of our present-day understanding of the diversity of oligochaetes. In the section entitled "Vermicomposting", the authors discussed the principle of vermicomposting. They pointed out the academic confusion and controver‐ sy which centre on the identity and biology of potential composting species. Importance of "pure culture" and the method of cultivation of earthworm of high composting efficiency were highlighted. Temperature, moisture content and physicochemical properties of feed mixtures influence the growth rate, maturity, reproduction rate and population size of earthworm during vermicomposting. In this section, the authors reported the influence of several physicochemical parameters on the general vermicomposting process. They also re‐ ported the differential responses of many species of earthworms toward selected parameters of soil. This book reports the basic and applied aspects of ecology and biology of earth‐ worms with an emphasis on vermicomposting. The paradigm shift that occurred in the field of research during the last two decades has been reflected in this book. This title is expected

aggravated in the future under the backdrop of climate change.

between humans and earthworm.

VIII Preface

abundance of earthworm are often correlated with the level of soil fertility.

In the end, I sincerely acknowledge Ms. Ivana Glavic from IntechOpen for her cooperation in every step of editing this book. I remain thankful to my doctoral students Santanu Das, Abhishek Ray and Arunodaya Gautam for their technical assistance. My special thanks go to my wife and research colleague Dr. Mitali Ray for her academic assistance and encour‐ agement. Shubhalakshmi, Bishnupriya and Arka are always my sources of inspiration.

> **Sajal Ray** Department of Zoology University of Calcutta, India

**Section 1**

**Introduction**

**Section 1**
