**4. Metacognition and the learning and study strategies inventory (LASSI)**

Metacognition is assessed in a range of ways but one of the most popular methods currently in widespread use in schools, colleges and universities worldwide is through the use of questionnaires which require students' to report their perceptions about their thinking and problem-solving skills and strategies. It is generally accepted that most students who struggle at university could improve their performance considerably if they understood the learning process better. Weinstein (1988) points out that poor grades begin to rebound when students learn the tricks of pinpointing the key points in lectures, and asserts that learning is more effective when we engage in thinking about the process of learning, thinking, and problem-solving. Recent research studies have confirmed Weinstein's view (e.g. Ning & Downing, 2010b), and have investigated other factors impacting upon metacognition such as gender differences (Downing et al., 2008) and the impact of problem-based learning approaches on metacognitive development (Downing et al., 2009). As a result of her work in the field of strategic learning at the University of Texas at Austin, Weinstein developed the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI) which is now the most widely used learning inventory in the world (Weinstein, 1987). The LASSI measures student's perceptions of their study and learning strategies and methods. In other words, it is a measure of the students thinking about their thinking or metacognition. The tool consists of ten scales, and eighty items which provide an assessment of students' awareness about and use of learning and study strategies related to the skill, will and self-regulation components of strategic learning. Research has repeatedly demonstrated that these factors contribute significantly to successful study, and that they can be learned or enhanced through educational interventions such as learning and study skills courses (Weinstein, 1994a, 1994b; King, 1991; Letteri, 1992; Hanley, 1995).

The LASSI provides standardised scores for the ten different scales and provides students with a diagnosis of their strengths and weaknesses, compared to other students, in the areas covered. It measures three main areas of 'strategic learning':

#### **4.1. Skill component of strategic learning**

138 Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition

metacognition into three types of thinking:

process of problem solving (Marchant, 2001).

**3. A brief history of metacognition** 

Aristotle, Confucius, Solomon, Buddha, and Lao Tzu.

generalised or specific.

Metacognitive skill: What one is currently doing.

Metacognitive knowledge: What one knows about knowledge.

Metacognitive experience: One' current cognitive or affective state.

Therefore, whilst cognition focuses on solving the problem, metacognition focuses on the

In addition to the knowledge people have about how they use their thoughts and strategies (Brown, 1987; Lynch et al., 2006), knowledge about how much they will be able to learn, and what kinds of strategies they use (Gleitman, 1985; Weinert & Kluwe 1987), people also have a set of general heuristics. For example, how they plan, set goals, and process feedback (Frese et al. 1987; Ning & Downing 2010d). The assumption is that these general heuristics can be either conscious or automatic (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1987) and they may be highly

The term metacognition first became part of the lexicon of higher education in the1970's when Flavell (1971) introduced the term 'metamemory'. However, the concept is much older than that (King, 2004) and draws on the work of more ancient philosophers like Plato,

Clearly, the potential importance of developing metacognitive skills was recognised long before the actual term was commonly used, with John Locke commenting in 1690, that most children gradually develop the ability to 'reflect' on their own thinking processes. For example, when young children are asked if they understand something, they often simply nod in agreement or fail to ask questions (Brown, 1973) but by adulthood most of us have a better understanding of the complex processes involved in knowing what we do, and do not, know (Piaget, 1972; Downing, 2009b). Brown (1987) and Hatton & Smith, (1995) report that as early

'executive processes'. Hacker (1998) points out the difference between 'cognitive tasks' (remembering things learned earlier that might help with the current task or problem) and 'metacognitive tasks' (monitoring and directing the process of problem solving), stressing the importance of learning more about thinking. Cornoldi (1998) emphasises the role of learners' beliefs about thinking and makes the point that if students feel confident that they can solve problems, they tend to do better work. In defining metacognition as 'thinking about thinking' or 'second-order cognition', Weinert (1987) acknowledges that purpose, conscious understanding, ability to talk or write about tasks, and generalisability to other tasks are also important factors in determining whether a given task is metacognitive and this viewpoint is supported by Brown (1987) who agrees that metacognition requires the thinker to use and describe the process of mental activity. Many other researchers also make the point that metacognition is best defined by acknowledging that it is both knowledge about, and control over thinking processes (Allen & Armour-Thomas, 1991). Vadhan and Stander (1993) clearly distinguish between ordinary thinking and awareness and understanding of thinking, and this is a theme elaborated on by Hacker (1998) who divides

> These scales examine students' perceptions (metacognition) of their learning strategies, skills and the thought processes related to identifying, acquiring and constructing meaning for important new information, ideas and procedures. The LASSI scales related to the skill component of strategic learning are:

 Information Processing-the ability to process ideas by mentally elaborating on them and organizing them in meaningful ways.

The Impact of Moving Away from Home on Undergraduate Metacognitive Development 141

of us would accept that there are times in our lives when we are forced to review and take stock of our thinking, and moving away from home to study at university for the first time is probably one of these. Does this have an impact upon the development of our metacognitive skills? This study casts light on the potential importance of one particular life event (moving away from home), and identifies some interesting preliminary correlations using demographic data gathered from first year students at a university in Hong Kong.

The LASSI is offered to all first-year undergraduate students at a university in Hong Kong in order to help them monitor and develop appropriate learning attitudes and strategies, and maximize their opportunities to enjoy a successful learning experience during university and beyond. The LASSI is offered on a voluntary, rather than compulsory, completion basis to all new undergraduate students within weeks 3 to 5 of their first semester at university. An interim test follows this pre-test around the middle of the student's undergraduate programme, and a post-test is also administered towards completion of the undergraduate programme. In other words, each undergraduate student will take LASSI three times during their undergraduate study at university. Therefore longitudinal data can be produced for diagnostic purposes and as evidence of growth in metacognitive ability over the time spent in undergraduate study. The entry and interim tests provide timely data and allow the university to correct any problems with this development early. The LASSI takes approximately 25 minutes to complete online and is

The Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (2nd Edition) Weinstein & Palmer, (2002).

Demographic 'entry' data collected, by the university in Hong Kong during the student

LASSI data was collected from a total of 1,821 (N = 1,821) new first-year undergraduate students at the university in Hong Kong, and correlated with variables taken from the same students' demographic data collected as a normal part of the admission process. The students were distributed into four groups for analysis. Therefore, the data related to LASSI score and background information for the following groups of students was obtained:

c. Foundation year students (all from the Chinese mainland/self-financed) (n=134) d. Students not belonging to any of the above 3 groups (n=360) (exception-see Table 1)

offered to all freshmen shortly after registration (3 to 5 weeks).

a. Full-time UGC (funded place) students (n=984) b. Part-time non-UGC (self-financed) students (n=343)

**5. Method** 

**5.1. Sample** 

**5.2. Materials** 

admission process.

**5.3. Participants** 

