**Author details**

74 Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition

**4. Summary and conclusions** 

adults.

strategies (see Figure 1, panel C). The use of intelligent tutors provides the unique opportunity of personally tailored learning and feedback experiences, dependent on each student's pattern of errors. This immediate feedback can be particularly useful in helping develop metacognitive skills (e.g., Roll, Alaven, McLaren, & Koedinger, 2011) and facilitate

Tweney, Doherty, and Mynatt (1981) noted some time ago that most tasks used to study scientific thinking were artificial because real investigations require *aided* cognition. However, as can be seen by several exemplars, even lab studies include support and assistance for many of the known cognitive limitations faced by both children and

Determining the developmental trajectory of scientific reasoning has been challenging, in part because *scientific reasoning* is not a unitary construct. Our goal was to outline how the investigation, evidence evaluation, and inference skills that constitute scientific reasoning emerge from intuitive information seeking via the interaction of individual and contextual factors. We describe the importance of (a) cognitive processes and mechanisms, (b) metacognitive and metastrategic skills, (c) the role of direct and scaffolded instruction, and (d) a context in which scientific activity is supported and which includes cultural tools (literacy, numeracy, technology) that facilitate the emergence of scientific reasoning. At the outset, we intended to keep section boundaries clean and neat. What was apparent to us, and may now be apparent to the reader, is that these elements are highly intertwined. It was difficult to discuss pure encoding in early childhood without noting the role that parents play. Likewise, it was difficult to discuss individual discovery of strategies, without noting such discovery takes place in the presence of peers, parents, and teachers. Similarly, discussing the teaching and learning of strategies is difficult without noting the role of

There is far more to a complete account of scientific reasoning than has been discussed here, including other cognitive mechanisms such as formal hypothesis testing, retrieval, and other reasoning processes. There are also relevant non-cognitive factors such as motivation, disposition, personality, argumentation skills, and personal epistemology, to name a few (see Feist, 2006). These additional considerations do not detract from our assertion that encoding and strategy use are critical to the development of scientific reasoning, and that we must consider cognitive and metacognitive skills within a social and physical context when seeking to understand the development of scientific reasoning. Scientific knowledge acquisition and, importantly, scientific knowledge *change* is the result of individual and social cognition that is mediated by education and cultural tools. The cultural institution of science has taken hundreds of years to develop. As individuals, we may start out with the curiosity and disposition to be little scientists, but it is a long journey from information

seeking to skilled scientific reasoning, with the help of many scaffolds along the way.

effective student collaboration (Diziol, Walker, Rummel, & Koedinger, 2010).

cultural tools such as language, number, and symbol systems.

Bradley J. Morris *Kent State University, USA* 

Steve Croker and Corinne Zimmerman *Illinois State University, USA* 

Amy M. Masnick *Hofstra University, USA* 
